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THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO  •   DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •    SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF 
A  CITY  SCHOOL 

BY 

ARTHUR  C.  PERRY,  Jr.,  Ph.D. 

DISTRICT  SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

AUTHOR  OF  "PROBLEMS  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL," 

"OUTLINES  OF  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION," 

"  THE  STATUS  OF  THE  TEACHER," 

"DISCIPLINE  AS  A  SCHOOL 

PROBLEM,"  ETC, 


REVISED  EDITION 


Nefo  gotfc 

THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1919 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1908,  1919, 
By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electro  typed.    Published  March,  1919. 


«   •   e  .  «J  ; 

•  •     •  «/  «  , 


1      «    «      e  •  • «      4      t  t  1 


Notfoooto  $r«« 

J.  S.  Cushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

Prior  to  1908  there  was  no  book  on  School 
Management  that  treated  specifically  the  adminis- 
tration of  a  city  school;  there  were,  in  fact,  very 
few  books  that  even  distinguished  between  school 
management  and  class  management.  In  that  year 
the  author's  The  Management  of  a  City  School  was 
published,  the  first  volume  to  deal  exclusively  with 
the  specific  problems  confronting  the  principal  of 
a  city  school.  The  gracious  reception  accorded 
the  book  has  prompted  the  author,  at  the  end  of  a 
decade,  to  undertake  a  complete  revision.  The 
plan  of  organization  of  the  original  edition  has  been 
retained;  but  the  text  has  been  liberally  reappor- 
tioned and  supplemented,  the  citations  brought  to 
date,  and  bold-faced  topical  headings  introduced. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  book  may  continue  to  interest 
those  charged  with  the  responsibility  of  managing 
schools,  those  preparing  themselves  for  adminis- 
trative positions,  and  the  teaching  profession 
generally,  and  that,  in  its  new  form,  it  may  render 
an  increasingly  helpful  service. 

V 

4 


VI  PREFACE 

The  author  wishes  that  it  were  practicable  to 
name  all  those  who  ha,ve  aided  and  inspired  him 
in  his  study  of  school  administration,  and  more 
particularly  in  the  present  work  of  revision,  but 
that  is  rendered  impossible  by  the  fact  that  they 
are  legion  —  associates  in  the  practical  work-a-day 
affairs  of  a  city  school  system,  teacher-students 
eagerly  responsive  in  the  lecture-room,  and  thinkers 
and  doers  in  the  profession  everywhere.  He  must, 
therefore,  content  himself  with  acknowledging,  thus 
broadly,  his  obligation,  a  debt  none  the  less  real  and 
none  the  less  appreciated. 


CONTENTS 

IAPTER  PAGE 

I.    Introduction  .        . i 

School    management,    i ;     The    city    school,    2 ; 
System,  4 ;  Official  relationships,  5. 

II.    The  Principal  and  the  State      ....        8 
Twofold  relation,  8 ;  General  relation,  9 ;  General 
obligations,  13 ;    Special  relation,   20 ;    Contractual 
obligations,  21 ;  Legal  status,  25.  . 

III.  The  Principal  and  the  Public    .        .        .        .32 

Parents,    32;      Cooperation,"   34;      Correspond- 
ence, 53  ;   Interviews,  59 ;    Self-seekers,  65. 

IV.  The  Principal  and  the  Authorities   ...      69 

Three  authorities,  70 ;  Principles  of  supervision,  76 ; 
Improper  supervision,  81 ;   Interpreting  orders,  84. 

V.  The  Principal  and  the  Teachers  ...  88 
Ideal  teacher,  89 ;  Assigning,  91 ;  Relation,  93  ; 
New  teacher,  94;  Three  kinds  of  teacher,  98; 
Teacher's  authority,  102 ;  Instructing,  104 ;  Con- 
ference, 108;  Course  of  study,  in;  Term's  work, 
112;  Plan  and  progress  records,  113;  Daily  time 
schedule,  118;  Uniform  methods,  124;  Correla- 
tion, 125 ;  Quality  of  work,  125 ;  Model  lessons,  129 ; 
Rating,  133  ;  Substitutes,  141 ;  Special  teachers,  146 ; 
Assistants,  147. 

VI.    The  Principal  and  the  Pupils:   The  Material 

Equipment 152 

School  building,  153 ;    Heating  and  ventilation, 
157;  Supplies,  160;  Decoration,  174. 
vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

VII.    The  Principal  and  the  Pupils'  Physical  Wel- 
fare          181 

General  responsibility,  181 ;  Entrance  and  txit, 
193 ;  Physical  care,  203. 

VIII.    The    Principal    and    the    Pupils'    Scholastic 

Progress 230 

Admission,  230;  Grading,  231;  Grouping,  233; 
Departmental  plan,  240;  Rating,  250;  Promo- 
tion, 256;  Classroom  work,  266;  Standards  and 
tests,  273 ;  Three  kinds  of  tests,  284. 

IX.    The  Principal  and  the  Pupils'  Moral  Develop- 
ment         307 

Discipline,  307 ;  General  principles,  309 ;  Specific 
methods,  319;  Teachers  as  disciplinarians,  320; 
Teacher's  personality,  320;  Specific  cautions,  322; 
Specific  aids,  328;  Principal  as  disciplinarian,  331; 
School  spirit,  332 ;  Preventive  measures,  349;  Prin- 
cipal's legal  responsibility,  361. 

X.    The  Principal  and  the  Principalship        .        .    387 
Qualifications,  387 ;  Adjustment  to  position,  399 ;     * 
Personal  growth,  402 ;  The  principalship,  404. 

Appendix 413 

Examination  questions  in  "School  Management." 

Index 427 

Index  of  Names 433 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY   SCHOOL 


THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY 
SCHOOL 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

School  management.  The  states  of  the  United 
States  are  a  unit  in  decreeing  that  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  a  system  of  public  schools  is  a 
necessary  function  of  modern  government.  The 
State  administers  its  school  system  through  a  State 
department.  It  clelegates  local  administration  to 
trustees,  school  boards,  boards  of  education,  etc., 
each  directing  the  schools  of  a  local  unit.  From 
these  lay  officers,  in  turn,  is  transferred  the  function 
of  actual  supervision  of  the  schools  to  a  technically 
equipped  superintendent.  From  the  superintendent 
is  delegated  the  detailed  administration  of  a  single 
school,  or  group  of  schools,  to  the  principal.  The 
principal  manages  his  school  with  the  aid  of  the 
teachers,  each  of  whom  manages  her  class.  Thus 
school  administration  divides  itself  into  (i)  school 


2>. :  Mritfc:  •MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 
•  ..«•..•.  «#.   : ; ..:  ••■•  *##* 

direction,  by  the  school  boards;  (2)  school  super- 
vision, by  the  superintendents ;  (3)  school  manage- 
ment, by  the  principals ;  and  (4)  class  management, 
by  the  teachers.  This  book  concerns  itself  specifi- 
cally with  the  third  of  these  departments  of  ad- 
ministration. 

Two  attractive  temptations  have  been  resisted:  to 
reach  up  into  the  problems  of  the  school  superintendent, 
and  to  reach  down  into  the  detail  of  the  work  of  the  class 
teacher.  A  discussion  of  the  broader  questions  of  school 
administration  —  such  as  the  financing  of  systems,  the 
coordination  of  schools,  the  functions  of  school  boards, 
the  construction  of  courses  of  study  —  would  be  interest- 
ing. But  these  are  outside  the  range  of  the  principal's 
daily  work,  and  moreover  they  have  already  elicited  an 
extensive  and  valuable  literature  which  is  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  thoughtful  principal.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  more  intimate  problems  of  the  class  teacher. 
What  has  been  attempted  is  a  statement  of  the  more 
important  principles  which  should  guide  the  principal 
in  the  administration  of  his  school. 

The  city  school.  The  conditions  assumed  are 
those  which  confront  the  principal  of  the  city  public 
school  of  elementary  grade.  The  district  school  of  a 
class  or  two,  or  the  town  school  of  four  or  five  rooms 
with   a   teacher   in   charge,   does   not   measurably 


INTRODUCTION  3 

present  the  problems  here  considered.1    But  to  the 
principal  of  from  ten  to  one  hundred  classes,2  en- 

1  In  a  few  cities  there  are  duplicate  or  double-session  schools,  as 
a  rule  the  result  of  failure  to  provide  enough  buildings  to  keep 
pace  with  increase  in  pupil  enrollment.  The  enrollment  in  excess 
of  normal  seating  capacity  is  provided  for  by  having  pupils  attend 
in  double  shift.  If  classrooms  only  were  used  the  school  day 
would  extend  to  ten  hours  in  order  that  each  of  the  two  relays  of 
pupils  should  have  five  hours.  As  this  would  necessitate  working 
pupils  too  early  in  the  day,  or  too  late,  or  both,  recourse  is  had  to 
a  program  which  utilizes  auditoriums,  playrooms,  and  playgrounds 
for  mass  activities.  By  working  the  whole  plant  to  the  limit,  re- 
gardless of  pedagogic  considerations,  the  day  can  be  shortened 
to  seven  or  eight  hours. 

The  principal  of  a  duplicate  school  meets  many  difficulties  of 
administration  peculiar  to  that  type  of  organization.  His  special 
problems  are  not  considered  in  this  volume,  however,  because  of 
the  comparatively  insignificant  number  of  duplicate  schools  and 
because  of  their  transitory  character.  Virtually  no  city  adminis- 
tration, it  would  seem,  would  now  dare  commit  itself  to  a  parsi- 
monious program  of  establishing  a  makeshift  duplicate  school 
as  its  permanent  ideal,  and  virtually  no  educational  adminis- 
trator would  claim  that  a  duplicate  school  has  inherent  advantages 
impossible  of  attainment  in  a  non-duplicate  organization. 

2  In  this  book,  Grade  is  applied  to  a  group  of  pupils  doing  the 
same  level  of  work ;  the  grades  are  designated  by  numbers  indicat- 
ing the  pupil's  year  in  school,  with  a  literal  suffix  indicating 
the  first  or  second  half  of  the  year,  the  successive  grades  being 
1  A,  iB,  2 A,  2B,  3 A,  etc.  Class  is  applied  to  the  group  of  pupils 
under  a  single  teacher,  in  a  single  room.  Thus,  in  a  large  school, 
there  may  be  two  or  more  classes  of  any  one  grade,  or  in  a  small 
school  two  or  more  grades  in  one  class. 


4    THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

rolling  from  400  to  5000  pupils,  there  are  continually 
presented  perplexing  problems  which  demand  ma- 
ture thought  and  keen  judgment.  Of  recent  years 
there  has  been  a  tendency  to  place  in  the  hands  of 
a  single  principal  a  school  or  schools  so  large  as  to 
demand  the  ability  and  energy  of  a  veritable  "  cap- 
tain of  industry."  It  is  not  in  order  to  discuss 
the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  the  passing  of 
the  old-time  school  master  and  the  advent  of  the 
modern  school  manager.  It  is  sufficient  to  realize 
that  such  a  transition  is  taking  place,  and  to  examine 
into  the  requirements  of  the  new  position. 

Frequent  citations  from  the  by-laws  of  the  school 
boards  of  various  cities  are  given  to  illustrate  practice  in 
respect  to  details  of  management.  The  figures  following 
each  reference  indicate  article,  paragraph,  section,  etc., 
without  specifying  the  title  of  the  document — by-laws, 
rules,  regulations — employed  in  that  particular  city. 

System.  The  principal  of  to-day  must  apply 
the  same  business  principles  to  the  handling  of  the 
business  side  of  his  school  as  are  employed  by  any 
other  manager  of  large  interests.  In  order  to  exert 
the  full  measure  of  his  influence,  he  must  do  his 
work  systematically,  accurately,  and  promptly. 

He  must  even  be  prepared  to  face  the  charge  of 


INTRODUCTION  5 

the  jealous,  the  misunderstanding,  or  the  incapable, 
of  being  too  systematic.  "  Red-tape  "  will  be  the 
indefinite  accusation.  Red-tape,  however,  is  un- 
justifiable system.  System  should  be  merely  a 
means  to  worthy  ends;  never  regarded  as  the  end 
itself.  When  a  system  ceases  to  simplify  and  pro- 
mote efficiency,  it  becomes  red-tape.  When  a 
system  is  followed  for  itself  and  not  for  what  it  can 
do,  it  becomes  red-tape.  Whenever  system  becomes 
red-tape  it  should  be  abandoned. 

If  system  along  any  line  simplifies  the  work  of  the 
principal  and  thus  conserves  his  energy,  leaving 
him  more  to  put  into  the  professional  side  of  his 
work,  he  should  adopt  it.  Throughout  these  pages, 
systematic  treatment  of  the  various  phases  of  ad- 
ministration is  recommended,  not  because  the  par- 
ticular methods  cited  are  unique  or  the  best,  but 
because  they  have  tried  advantages  and  may  suitably 
serve  as  suggestions. 

With  topics  which  permit  of  difference  of  opinion 
the  aim  has  been  to  present  both  sides  of  the  ques- 
tion with  equal  fullness  and  with  sufficient  sub- 
mergence of  possible  personal  bias. 

Official  relationships.  The  school  here  under 
discussion  is  but  a  part  of  a  city  or  town  system  of 


6  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

public  education.  The  principal  is  thus  brought 
into  relation  with  higher  authorities,  —  a  School 
Board,  a  Superintendent,  perhaps  a  Board  of  Super- 
intendents. Hence  we  must  look  into  this  relation- 
ship, which  is  done  under  the  caption  "  The  Principal 
and  the  Authorities.' ■ 

At  his  other  hand  are  the  principal's  coworkers, 
the  teachers.  Upon  the  relationship  which  he 
establishes  with  them  will  his  success  in  large  measure 
depend ;  therefore  a  chapter  is  devoted  to  this  topic. 

Throughout  the  book  I  refer,  for  the  sake  of  clearness, 
to  the  principal  as  he  and  the  teacher  as  she,  though  I 
am  not  unmindful  that  there  are  many  women  principals 
and  many  men  teachers  in  our  schools.  The  reader  will 
please  not  to  take  exception  to  the  arbitrary  selection  of 
pronouns,  but  accept  it  as  a  simple  convenience. 

In  addition  to  these  relationships  there  must  be 
considered  the  relation  of  the  principal  to  the  legal 
entity,  the  State,  and  to  the  more  concrete  public 
which  comes  daily  into  his  office  on  various  errands, 
many  legitimate  and  sincere,  but  alas!  too  many 
others  mercenary  or  meddling. 

It  is  not  to  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  very 
existence  and  maintenance  of  the  schools  is  in  behalf  ] 
of  the  pupils ;  and  the  matters  of  detail  growing  out. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

of  the  principal's  daily  responsibility  for  the  welfare 
of  the  children  under  his  charge  demand  extended 
treatment. 

The  ultimate  element  of  success  in  a  principal's 
career  is,  after  all,  the  principal  himself.  It  will  be  his 
personality,  his  attitude  toward  duty  and  progress, 
that  will  make  or  mar  his  school.  Hence  the  con- 
cluding chapter  will  consider  the  Principal  and  the 
Principalship. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   PRINCIPAL   AND   THE    STATE 

Public  control  of  schools.  The  State,  through  its 
departments  of  education,  lecture  bureaus,  public 
libraries,  museums,  and  other  institutions,  gives  a 
broad  definition  to  the  phrase  "  a  system  of  public 
education  " ;  but  to  the  average  citizen  the  word 
education  is  limited  in  its  application  to  his  and 
his  neighbor's  children,  and  in  its  content  to  their 
formal  instruction  in  the  public  school.  It  is  the 
relation  to  the  State  of  the  administrative  officer  of 
a  public  school  known  locally  by  various  titles, 
but  most  frequently  by  that  of  Principal,  that  com- 
mands our  present  attention. 

Two  relations  of  the  principal  to  his  work.  At  the 
outset  we  must  distinguish  between  two  fundamental 
relations  which  the  principal  bears  to  his  work,  to 
confuse  which  is  hopelessly  to  cloud  discussion. 
The  principal's  twofold  relation  is,  on  the  one 
hand,  broad  and  general;  on  the  other,  narrow 
and   specific.    {His   general   relation   is    ill   defined 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  9 

because  it  concerns  his  obligations  to  society  as  a 
whole;  his  specific  relation  is  well  defined  because 
he  is  under  contract  as  an  agent  of  organized  gov- 
ernment. 

~Ar:  The  principal's  general  relation.  The  prin- 
cipal's general  relation  to  his  work  rests  upon  the 
fact  that  he  is  a  professional  man  owing  service  to 
organic  society  in  return  for  the  benefits  accruing 
from  membership  in  the  organized  social  group. 

The  questionable  epigram  that  "all  men  are  created 
equal"  has  served  noble  purpose  in  its  time.  It  has, 
however,  given  place  in  the  public  mind  to  a  series  of 
ideas  which  may  probably  be  fairly  expressed  thus :  it 
might  be  a  comfortable  though  monotonous  condition  if  all 
men  were  born  free  and  equal ;  they  are  not,  and  human 
ingenuity  cannot  reasonably  expect  to  create  this  condi- 
tion ;  we  do  not  despair  of  the  amelioration  of  present 
conditions ;  we  hope,  not  that  every  man  shall  be  born 
into  the  world  with  equal  equipment  of  body,  mind,  and 
material  possessions,  but  that  every  man  shall  have  a 
free  and  unhampered  opportunity  to  make  the  most 
of  such  natural  equipment  as  is  his. 

When  equal  freedom  and  opportunity  do  become  the 
heritage  of  all  members  of  society,  then  presumably  their 
obligations  will  be  distributed  equally.  In  the  mean- 
while, taxes  are  levied  in  proportion  to  a  man's  wealth,  — 
at  least,  that  is  the  aim.    When  society  has  paid  the 


io       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

laborer  his  dollar  a  day  for  digging  a  ditch,  it  considers 
the  account  practically  closed ;  if  there  were  no  "  society," 
the  laborer,  alone  in  the  forest,  could  by  the  output  of 
equivalent  labor  support  himself  approximately  a  "dol- 
lar's worth."  When  society  has  paid  the  manufacturer 
a  million  dollars  a  year  for  supplying  it  with  the  products 
of  his  mill,  it  considers  the  account  still  open ;  if  there 
were  no  "society,"  the  manufacturer,  alone  in  the  forest, 
could  never,  by  the  output  of  any  conceivable  labor, 
support  himself  a  "million  dollars'  worth."  Hence 
society  says  to  the  millionaire :  You  must  make  an  extra 
return  to  us  for  the  opportunity  which  by  our  very  exist- 
ence we  have  given  you  to  accumulate  dollars.  Many 
millionaires,  themselves,  recognizing  the  justice  of  so- 
ciety's claim,  make  voluntary  payments  far  in  excess  of 
the  formal  taxes  imposed.1 

The  professions.  Society  is  more  and  more 
urgently  claiming  the  right  to  levy  taxes  not  only 
upon  the  material  wealth  of  its  members  but  upon 
their  mental  and  moral  wealth  as  well.  There  are 
certain  classes  of  persons  upon  whom  this  non- 
monetary tax  falls  heaviest,  namely,  the  workers  in 
the  professions.  Once  limited  to  law,  medicine,  and 
theology,  the  present-day  conservative  use  of  the 
word    profession   is    indicated   by    the    Standard's 

1  See  Gerald  S.  Lee,  Inspired  Millionaires \  for  development  of 
the  idea  of  a  million  dollars  as  an  art  form. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  n 

definition :  an  occupation  that  properly  involves  a 
liberal  education  or  its  equivalent,  and  mental 
rather  than  manual  labor.  A  liberal  education  is  a 
form  of  opportunity  provided  by  society ;  in  return, 
society  demands  a  general  though  not  very  sharply 
defined  service  from  the  members  of  the  professions 
in  addition  to  the  specific  services  for  which  its 
individuals  are  paid  by  contract..  In  its  limited 
concept  the  idea  takes  concrete  expression  in  the 
expectation  that  the  physician  shall  serve  in  an 
emergency  without  preliminary  stipulation  as  to 
his  fee,  that  the  clergyman  shall  respond  to  a 
|  call  "  outside  his  own  church,  that  the  lawyer  shall 
not  instigate  litigation  for  the  sake  of  profiting 
by  its  settlement.  The  thought  has,  however,  a 
broader  and  still  more  ideal  content. 

The  physician  has  his  specific  relation  to  his  profession. 
With  his  individual  patients  he  is  virtually  under  con- 
tract to  render  a  certain  amount  of  service  for  a  given 
financial  reward.  But  he  also  has  a  general  relation. 
Society  demands  of  him  that  he  shall  use  his  liberal  edu- 
cation along  his  special  lines  for  the  general  good.  He 
is  expected  to  aid  in  the  advance  of  medical  science  and 
to  give  his  discoveries  freely  to  society  as  a  whole ;  he  is 
expected  to  advise  society  as  to  legislative  measures 
necessary  to  its  physical  well-being  and  to  agitate  for 


12   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

their  enactment;  indeed,  he  is  expected  to  immolate 
his  self-interest  to  the  extent  of  so  bettering  conditions 
generally  that  he  will  be  less  needed  specifically.1 

The  pastor  or  priest  has  his  specific  contractual  rela- 
tion to  his  church.  But  when  his  special  duties  toward 
his  parishioners  have  all  been  performed,  society  still 
asks  that  he  recognize  and  discharge  his  general  obliga- 
tion. As  the  representatives  of  the  institution  whose 
aim  is  to  lead  in  the  paths  of  righteousness,  the  clergy  are 
expected  to  advance  the  moral  health  of  society  just  as 
the  physicians  are  expected  to  protect  and  advance  its 
bodily  health. 

Similarly,  the  lawyer  has  a  broader  obligation  than  is 
implied  by  his  contractual  relation  with  his  clients.  In 
addition  to  meeting  the  specific  demands  of  his  profes- 
sion, he  is  expected  to  contribute  freely  of  his  learning 
toward  civic  progress  and  the  betterment  of  organized 
government.2 

Teaching  as  a  profession.  A  parallel  to  the  three 
traditional  professions  is  teaching.  In  proportion  as 
the  school  man  is  liberally  educated,  society  imposes 

1  For  instance,  it  is  the  physicians  who  see  that  our  houses  are 
disinfected  after  a  case  of  contagious  disease,  notwithstanding  that 
it  might  be,  in  a  narrow  sense,  more  profitable  to  them  if  they  kept 
this  secret  to  themselves. 

2  Witness  the  fact  that  society  "honors"  one  form  of  this 
service  to  the  extent  that  a  lawyer  will  gladly  relinquish  a  $20,000 
practice  for  a  $10,000  judgeship.  Also,  note  the  influence  of  Bar 
Associations  upon  judiciary  elections. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  13 

upon  him  an  extra-contractual  obligation.1  The 
president  of  any  of  our  great  universities,  for  ex- 
ample, obtains  a  general  survey  of  the  educational 
world  and  its  needs,  and  thus  gains  a  specialized 
equipment  which  it  is  his  duty  to  use  in  public 
service.  His  specific  duties  toward  his  institution 
are  performed  on  a  definite  basis  of  service  rendered 
for  cash  paid.  Yet  such  a  baldly  commercial  state- 
ment must  shock  even  a  callous  reader.  The 
devoted  service  of  many  a  college  president  to 
thousands  of  individuals  and  to  society  as  a  whole 
is  immeasurably  larger  than  the  financial  return 
which  society  gives  him.  It  is  the  difference  between 
the  two  norms  that  measures  the  "  general  "  obliga- 
tion which  he  has  fulfilled,  based  upon  his  liberal 
education  and  his  membership  in  a  profession  — 
that  is,  upon  opportunity. 

The  principal's  general  obligations.  All  men  are 
not  created  equal  and  all  men  are  not  created  even 
with  the  same  opportunity.  It  is  not  given  to  every 
lawyer  to  sit  upon  the  Supreme  Court  bench,  nor  to 

1  A  crude  though  very  concrete  illustration  is  the  way  in  which 
any  teacher,  especially  in  rural  districts,  is  pursued  by  people  who 
have  no  contractual  claim  upon  him,  and  plied  with  intellectual 
puzzles,  for  the  solution  of  which  he,  ex  officio,  is  supposed  to  be 
especially  responsible. 


14       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

every  physician  to  make  a  revolutionizing  discovery, 
nor  to  every  clergyman  to  initiate  some  great  reform, 
nor  to  every  educator  to  guide  a  university ;  never- 
theless, every  professional  man,  in  proportion  to  his 
opportunity,  has  his  own  "  general "  obligation. 
And  this  brings  us  to  the  school  principal.  The 
education  of  the  average  principal  is  probably  as 
"  liberal "  as  that  of  the  average  lawyer,  physician, 
or  minister.  Hence  his  general  obligations  are  cor- 
respondingly great,  and  follow  four  main  lines. 

i.  To  secure  recognition  of  teaching  as  a  profession. 
In  any  American  community  the  "  liberally " 
educated  men  are  to  be  found  chiefly  among  the 
physicians,  lawyers,  editors,  and  clergy,  and  it  is 
to  this  group  that  the  people  look  for  guidance  along 
lines  relating  to  the  general  welfare.  If  the  school 
principals  are  not  found  in  this  group,  it  must  mean 
either  that  they  are  not  liberally  educated,  or  are  not 
alive  to  their  obligations.  For  that  particular  com- 
munity teaching  is  likely  not  to  be  regarded  as  a 
profession.  Unfortunately  the  condition  is  widely 
prevalent.  The  needs  of  society  require  that  teach- 
ing shall  everywhere  become  a  profession.1     It  be- 

1  Any  city  that  appointed  as  teachers  only  broadly  educated  and 
specially  trained  men  and  women,  paying  salaries  to  compare 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  15 

comes  a  duty  of  every  teacher  to  contribute  toward 
bringing  about  this  condition.  The  principals  pre- 
sumably represent  a  selection  from  among  the  best 
teachers.  It  is  preeminently  their  duty,  therefore, 
both  to  convince  society  that  it  is  to  its  interest  to 
establish  teaching  as  a  profession,  and  to  convince 
their  fellow-teachers  that  it  is  to  their  interest  to 
secure  professional  recognition. 

2.  To  win  professional  recognition  for  himself. 
Even  if  society  seems  reluctant  to  put  the  business 
of  teaching  upon  a  professional  footing,  at  least  the 
individual  principal  can,  in  his  own  community,  win 
personal  recognition  as  to  his  fitness  for  professional 
consideration.  This  takes  rank  as  one  of  his  general 
duties.     If  he  has  not  had  a  liberal  schooling  in  the 

favorably  with  those  of  similarly  equipped  men  and  women  in 
other  lines,  would,  even  on  the  large  capital  required,  receive 
enormous  dividends  in  the  improved  financial,  physical,  mental, 
and  moral  welfare  of  its  rising  generation  of  citizens.  It  would 
doubtless  be  impossible  to  establish  this  condition  by  other  than 
a  gradual  extension  of  requirements.  It  is  fortunate  that  the 
trend  is  in  this  direction,  but  equally  unfortunate  that  so  few 
teachers  encourage  the  forward  movement.  The  many  seem  not 
to  realize  that  their  very  self-interest,  if  no  higher  motive,  should 
make  them  sympathize  with  it.  When  it  is  proposed  to  raise  the 
requirements  of  eligibility,  it  is  frequently  the  teachers  who 
protest .  Rather  should  they  indorse  every  such  measure.  Indeed, 
it  should  be  they  who  take  the  initiative. 


16       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

formal  sense,  he  should  get  it ;  or  if  he  has  had  formal 
schooling,  he  should  broaden  and  deepen  it  by 
continued  study  and  reflection.  Society  will  take 
him  as  it  finds  him  and  will  estimate  him  much  as  he 
fairly  estimates  himself.  If  he  rests  snugly  in  a 
comfortable  official  position  from  which  he  cannot 
be  disturbed  so  long  as  he  renders  some  sort  of 
service,  perhaps  no  more  than  a  perfunctory  time- 
service,  his  fellow-citizens  will  class  him,  and  that 
but  casually,  as  an  accident  enjoying  a  public 
"  snap,"  a  "  feeder  at  the  public  crib."  If,  on 
the  contrary,  he  proves  himself  truly  educated, 
if  he  regards  his  office  as  the  agency  through  which 
he  renders  public  service,  if  he  identifies  himself 
with  professional  men  and  women,  the  leaders  of 
public  thought,  his  community  will  award  him 
professional  credentials,  and  through  him  the  teach- 
ing vocation  will  gain  measurably  in  dignity  and 
recognition. 

3.  To  evaluate  the  school  environment.  The  school 
is  an  institution  for  providing  such  artificial  environ- 
ments as  will  short-circuit  for  the  pupils  the  experi- 
ences of  the  race.  In  turn,  the  school  is  subject  to 
the  influence  of  the  environmental  forces  playing 
upon  it  from  all  sides.     The  principal  should  cor- 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  17 

rectly  appraise  these  forces,  particularly  taking  into 
account  the  correlated  institutions.  The  family  and 
the  church,  though  universal  throughout  the  civil- 
ized world,  are  subject  to  wide  local  variations.  The 
family  life  of  one  American  community  differs  con- 
siderably from  that  of  another,  so  that  the  prin- 
cipal must  make  a  close  estimate  of  its  local  char- 
acter. Similarly  must  he  measure  and  evaluate 
the  particular  religious  influences  at  work  in  his 
district  as  well  as  such  local  forces  as  newspapers, 
libraries,  charitable  and  benevolent  foundations,  in- 
dustrial institutions,  and  the  more  indefinite  and 
subtle  forces  that  weave  themselves  into  the  social 
life  of  the  community.  His  duty  toward  these 
factors  of  institutional  environment  is  not  alone 
that  he  shall  understand  them  and  consider  them 
in  the  management  of  his  school,  but  also  that 
he  shall  take  his  part  as  a  man  of  liberal  edu- 
cation in  acting  with  them  and  reacting  upon 
them. 

4.  To  give  "  expert "  service.  It  is  as  a  professional 
expert  that  the  principal  has  his  chief  general  duty. 
Society  may  justly  expect  him  to  contribute  his 
share  to  the  philosophy  and  science  of  education, 
and  to  act,  as  it  were,  on  its  board  of  advisers  when 


iS       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

it  formulates  its  educational  policies.1  Like  the 
students  of  other  sciences,  the  student  of  education 
must  be  continually  testing  and  retesting  its  prin- 
ciples. The  principal,  as  a  student  enjoying  pe- 
culiar opportunities,  must  maintain  a  scientific 
attitude,  accepting  new  theories,  not  as  laws  of  the 
Medes  and  Persians,  but  as  hypotheses  to  be  tested 
in  the  laboratory  of  his  school  and  his  own  thought. 

1  The  general  public  is  acquainted  with  education  chiefly  as  an 
art  practiced  by  the  teachers  it  knows.  Few  realize  that  it  is 
based  upon  sound  principles  which  in  their  systematic  collation 
constitute  the  science  of  education.  The  fact  that  it  is  not  an 
exact  science,  and  presumably  never  can  become  one,  does  not,  of 
course,  remove  it  from  the  scientific  class ;  as  a  science,  it  is  most 
closely  analogous  to  medicine. 

To  the  layman  the  work  and  the  accomplishments  of  the  astron- 
omer, for  example,  are  picturesque  and  mystifying.  The  prophetic 
discovery  of  a  Neptune  is  startling,  and  scents  of  wizardry.  Astron- 
omy, says  he,  is  indeed  a  science !  But  the  discovery  of  Neptune 
was  little  more  than  a  patient  study  in  the  decomposition  of  forces, 
a  process  of  deduction  from  established  principles.  Education  is 
a  study  in  the  decomposition  of  the  forces  that  produce  the  com- 
plete man.  These  forces  are  immeasurably  greater  in  number 
and  variety  than  those  in  the  physical  realm.  The  newborn  babe 
is  far  more  complex  than  a  solar  system ;  the  educated  man  is  even 
more  marvelously  complex ;  to  convert  the  one  into  the  other  is  a 
task  beside  which  regulating  the  gear  of  the  planets  is  play. 

Scientific  treatment  of  the  subject  of  education  is  not  precluded 
by  reason  of  the  fact  that  the  phenomena  are  complex,  the  data 
urilimited,  and  the  generalizations  tentative. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  19 

This  may  at  times  bring  him  into  disagreement  with 
his  fellow-educators,  and  he  must  conduct  himself 
with  fairness  and  courtesy,  recognizing  the  rights 
of  others  to  their  opinions  and  maintaining  his  own 
right  to  his. 

It  does  not  do  to  be  too  dogmatic  even  in  the  material 
sciences  —  we  may  yet  discard  the  law  of  gravitation. 
The  educator,  working  in  the  realm  of  psychological  forces 
and  mental  complexes,  must  ever  be  a  skeptic.  When 
some  pedagogic  enthusiast  or  journalistic  theorist,1 
with  an  air  of  finality,  promulgates  "the"  principles  of 
education,  the  conscientious  and  cautious  student  waits, 
waits  and  sees  many  of  the  "principles"  utterly  de- 
molished by  scientific  testing.  Scientific  generalization, 
of  course,  has  its  place,  but  it  should  be  done  by  the 
scientifically  equipped,  and  the  results  should  be  accepted 
only  as  working  hypotheses.  ■  Educational  theory,  mean- 
ing its  tentative  generalizations,  shifts  pendulously,  and 
it  is  questionable  whether  it  will  ever  reach  a  state  of 

1  "Opinion  serves  for  information,  and  prejudice  usurps  the 
place  of  principle.  The  popular  journals  and  the  printed  pro- 
ceedings of  educational  associations  teem  with  perfectly  prepos- 
terous contributions  bearing  the  signatures  of  worthy  and  dis- 
tinguished men,  who  would  not  dream  of  writing  dogmatically 
upon  a  physical,  a  biological,  or  a  linguistic  problem.  For  some 
recondite  reason  they  face  the  equally  difficult  and  unfamiliar 
problems  of  education  without  a  tremor."  —  Nicholas  Murray 
Butler,  The  Meaning  of  Education,  p.  94. 


20       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

equilibrium.  The  principal,  of  all  school  people,  must 
not  lose  his  balance  and  himself  swing  too  far  or  too  fre- 
quently. 

Above  all,  society  expects  the  educator,  as  it 
expects  the  physician,  in  his  capacity  of  professional 
expert,  fearlessly  and  freely  to  contribute  his  honest 
convictions  on  technical  questions.  If  the  educa- 
tional policy  of  society  is  not  to  be  molded  by  the 
practical  educators,  including  the  school  principals, 
by  whom,  then,  is  it  to  be  molded?  Shall  the 
school  men  shirk  their  plain  duty  to  society,  and 
leave  it  to  be  performed  by  the  liberally  educated 
men  of  the  other  professions,  or,  what  so  frequently 
and  disastrously  is  the  case,  by  unintelligent  rep- 
resentatives of  the  people  ? 

B.  The  principal's  special  relation.  The  fore- 
going outline  of  the  principal's  general  relation  to 
his  work  has  been  given  with  intentional  sketchi- 
ness.  It  has  been  emphasized,  however,  in  order 
that  it  may  serve  as  a  background  against  which 
the  succeeding  discussion  of  his  special  relation  may 
stand  out  in  bold  relief. 

Society,  through  its  organized  institution  of  gov- 
ernment, establishes  and  supports  schools.  In 
America,  education  is  a  function  exercised  by  the 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  21 

State  governments.  We  have  no  federal  system; 
we  have  no  municipal  systems,  properly  speaking. 
The  administration  of  its  school  affairs  by  the  city 
is  not  an  inherent  right  of  the  city  but  one  which, 
like  its  other  municipal  functions,  it  receives  at  the 
hands  of  the  State  through  statutory  instruments. 
The  State  does  not  surrender  its  function  as  public 
educator,  but,  to  secure  economy  and  efficiency  in 
administration,  delegates  the  detailed  exercise  of 
that  function  to  its  corporate  municipalities.  This 
it  does  tentatively,  reserving  the  right,  which  it 
frequently  exercises,  to  resume  functions  previously 
delegated  to  the  cities. 

Throughout  the  country  the  relation  of  State  to 
city  varies  as  to  details.  The  principal  should  have 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  particular  relation  that 
exists  between  his. State  and  his  city. 

The  principal's  contractual  obligations.  The  exact 
form  of  the  contract  which  the  principal  makes 
is  also  a  matter  of  local  variation.  The  condition, 
however,  is  essentially  this:  The  principal  is  under 
agreement  whereby,  in  consideration  of  a  stated 
salary,  he  is  to  administer  the  affairs  of  a  particular 
school  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  his  con- 
tract.     These  terms  are  usually  in  the  main  only 


22       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

implicit,1  but  legally  they  are  as  binding  as  if  explicitly 
stated  in  a  formal  documentary  agreement.  The  chief 
sources  of  the  "  terms  "  are  the  State  constitution, 
the  State  laws,  the  municipal  charter,  and  the  by- 
laws, rules,  and  regulations  of  the  school  board  and 
the  directions  of  its  officers.  With  these  the  prin- 
cipal should  be  as  familiar  as  he  is  with  the  other 
side  of  his  contract  —  that  which  states  the 
number  of  dollars  and  cents  constituting  his  re- 
muneration.2 

Obligations  fundamentally  legal.  The  duties 
arising  from  the  principal's  general  relation  to  the 
State  are  not  included  in  his  contract.  It  is  assumed 
that  he  will  meet  the  obligations  of  his  contract  and 

1  Actual  contracts,  in  general  form,  are  used  in  several  places. 
Virginia  School  Law  prescribes :  "Written  contracts  shall  be  made 
by  the  school  board  with  all  public  free  school  teachers  in  a  form 
to  be  prescribed  by  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
before  they  enter  upon  their  duties.  Such  contracts  shall  be 
signed  in  duplicate,  each  party  holding  copy."  —  page  66.  "In 
all  cases  teachers  must  be  elected  and  the  terms  of  the  contract 
prescribed  at  a  regular  or  called  meeting  of  the  board,  and  such 
contract  shall  be  executed  on  behalf  of  the  board  by  the  clerk, 
unless  the  board  shall  designate  some  other  member  thereof  to 
execute  the  same."  —  page  174. 

2  New  Haven  specifies  in  its  rules :  Teachers  "shall  make  them- 
selves familiar  with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Board,  espe- 
cially those  relating  to  their  own  duties."  —  sec.  223. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  23 

perform  his  specific  duties  on  a  working  basis  of 
sound  philosophy  and  in  a  spirit  of  progressive 
scholarship,  but  his  fundamental  relation  to  his  school 
is  not  pedagogical,  but  legal.  This  distinction  must 
be  accurately  apprehended  and  kept  constantly  in 
view. 

To  illustrate,  consider  the  case  of  a  New  York  City 
principal  who  has  certain  well-formed  administrative 
opinions,  gained  by  fruitful  experience  and  sincere  think- 
ing, among  them,  for  instance :  (1)  that  once  a  term  is 
as  frequently  as  his  school  should  be  put  through  a  fire 
drill;1  (2)  that  the  principal  should  not  be  required  to 
have  technical  knowledge  of  the  janitor's  duties  in  run- 
ning the  heating  plant ;  and  (3)  that  the  principal  should 
have  the  power  to  reduce  pupils  in  grade  without  refer- 
ence or  report  to  his  superiors.  His  obligations  are, 
however,  expressly  defined  for  him,  as  follows :  (1)  a 
State  law  provides  that  he  shall  exercise  his  school  in  a 
fire  drill  once  a  month,  subject  to  a  fine  of  $50  in  case  of 
neglect;  and  the  by-laws  of  the  Board  of  Education 
provide  (2)  that  he  shall  have  responsible  supervision  of 
the  janitor  as  to  the  operation  of  the  heating  apparatus ; 

1  His  chief  argument  would  probably  be  that  there  is  an  element 
of  danger  even  in  the  "drill,"  and  that  this  risk  should  be  incurred 
very  infrequently.  Such  a  position  is  not  here  defended.  The 
subject  of  emergency  dismissals  is  discussed  later  and  the  reference 
to  it  here,  as  to  the  other  topics,  is  only  to  give  point  to  the 
supposititious  case  cited. 


24   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

and  (3)  that  upon  reducing  a  pupil  in  grade,  he  shall  re- 
port the  fact  to  his  superintendent,  who  has  the  power 
to  reverse  his  action. 

The  principal  may  be  sincere  in  his  belief  that  the  best 
interests  of  the  schools  require  their  administration  in 
accordance  with  his  opinions,  but  it  is  clear  that  he  has 
no  option  in  the  matter.  He  is  under  contract  to  ad- 
minister his  school  contrary,  if  it  so  happens,  to  his  own 
opinions  —  his  pedagogy  must  yield  to  law.  This  is  his 
special  relation  to  his  school,  but,  as  we  have  seen,  his  duty 
does  not  end  here.  His  general  relation  implies  that,  in 
proportion  as  he  feels  the  unwisdom  of  the  law,  he  shall 
exercise  his  extra-contractual  obligation  to  society,  and, 
while  punctiliously  complying  with  the  law,  strenuously 
advocate  its  amendment.  Only  by  performing  this 
general  duty  can  he  discharge  his  full  obligation  to  the 
State. 

The  principal  must  not  betray  emotion  in  per- 
forming his  legal  duties  when  they  discord  with  what 
he  considers  good  educational  practice.  The  law  is 
an  impersonal  expression,  albeit  it  is  the  consensus 
of  personal  opinions.  The  place,  if  there  be  any, 
for  strong  feeling  for  or  against  a  law  is  in  the  course 
of  its  enactment  or  in  the  advocacy  of  its  repeal 
—  never  in  its  execution. 

An  extreme  case  serves  as  an  illustration.  Capital 
punishment  is  administered  by  law.     The  hangman  has 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE   STATE  25 

a  citizen's  —  we  might  say  an  expert's  —  right  to  advo- 
cate the  repeal  of  that  law,  but  it  is  evident  that  in  exe- 
cuting the  provisions  of  the  law  he  has  no  right  to  "half  " 
hang  his  subject,  to  hang  him  with  intentional  bungling, 
to  commiserate  with  him  on  the  injustice  of  the  law, 
or  in  any  other  way  to  permit  his  personal  opinions  to 
affect  the  discharge  of  his  official  duty.  It  is  not  to  be 
forgotten,  too,  that  he  is  privileged  —  indeed  that  he 
ought  —  to  resign  his  office  whenever  the  conditions  im- 
posed are  in  such  conflict  with  his  personal  views  as  to 
prevent  his  "  obeying  orders." 

The  principal's  legal  status.  The  proposition 
that,  when  they  are  in  conflict,  the  pedagogical 
opinions  of  the  principal  must  yield  to  the  provisions 
of  his  legal  contract,  supports  the  corollary  that  the 
principal  must  make  a  thorough  study  into  his  own 
legal  status. 

In  case  of  dispute,  it  is  far  better  that  the  prin- 
cipal be  justified  by  statute  law  than  by  pedagogic 
theory ;  only  when  the  law  is  silent  may  theory  speak. 
It  is  of  prime  importance  that  the  principal  know, 
in  the  administration  of  his  school,  what,  by  law : 
(1)  he  may  do ;  (2)  he  must  do ;  (3)  he  must  not 
do,  —  i.e. }  his  rights,  his  duties,  and  his  limitations. 
As  to  his  rights,  he  should  exercise  them  without  fear 
or  favor ;  as  to  his  duties,  he  should  discharge  them 


26   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

honestly  and  completely;  as  to  his  limitations,  he 
should  frankly  admit  them  and  respect  them. 

The  principal  should  exercise  his  rights  dispas- 
sionately; he  should  perform  his  duties  dispas- 
sionately; he  should  recognize  his  limitations 
dispassionately.  This  proposition  seems  axiomatic, 
yet  it  is  so  often  violated  in  practice  that  further 
exposition  may  not  be  misplaced. 

i.  The  principal's  rights.  The  legal  rights  of  the 
principal  will  be  questioned  frequently  by  parents 
and  occasionally  by  his  official  superiors ;  but,  con- 
scious only  of  the  responsibility  placed  upon  him, 
he  will  never  "  flaunt "  his  authority.  The  fact 
that  he  is  right  is  all  sufficient  —  it  does  not  need 
obtrusive  reiteration.  He  has  but  to  cite  the  law, 
not  to  justify  or  vindicate  it.  Nor  should  he  be- 
tray irritation  that  his  authority  has  been  called 
into  question;  that  it  should  be  is  but  a  natural 
feature  in  the  topography  of  his  position  —  it  is  all 
in  the  day's  work. 

2.  The  principal's  duties.  The  principal  will 
perform  his  legal  duties  to  the  best  of  his  ability 
and  in  the  exercise  of  that  judgment  for  which  he 
is  paid  and  which,  it  is  to  be  assumed,  he  possesses. 
But  he  will  always  be  subject  more  or  less  to  petty 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  27 

interference  based  upon  the  contrary  assumption. 
Because,  forsooth,  he  is  a  descendant  of  Ichabod 
Crane,  his  administrative  judgment  is  assumed  to 
be  not  quite  so  reliable  as  is  that  of  the  "  business  " 
man  with  equal  responsibilities. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  members  of  a  Board  of 
Education,  who,  in  private  business,  would  not  ex- 
pect a  department  head  to  get  results  without 
leaving  him  unhampered  in  working  out  the  de- 
tails of  his  department,  will  appoint  a  man  to  the 
principalship  of  a  public  school,  hold  him  respon- 
sible for  results,  and  then  seriously  interfere  with 
the  detailed  work  of  his  office.  Happily  this  state  of 
affairs  seems  to  be  gradually  bettering,  probably 
through  the  increasing  ability  of  school  men  to 
demonstrate   their  fitness   for  responsibility. 

The  judgment  of  the  best  of  business  men  occasion- 
ally goes  wrong,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  the  prin- 
cipal should  not  be  allowed  his  small  percentage  of 
"  errors  "  without  being  condemned  utterly.  The 
point  here  emphasized  is  the  attitude  of  the  prin- 
cipal toward  his  own  administrative  mistakes.  He 
must  frankly  recognize  them,  cheerfully  acknowl- 
edge them,  faithfully  repair  them,  and  progressively 
prevent   their  recurrence.    If  he  indulge  in   any 


28   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

irritation,  he  must  be  sure  that  it  is  directed  toward 
himself,  where  it  rightfully  belongs. 

3.  The  principal's  limitations.  The  legal  limi- 
tations of  the  principal  are  many,  —  in  fact,  it 
might  be  argued  that  in  public  positions  generally, 
the  higher  the  office,  the  greater  the  number  of 
limitations  which  encompass  it.  His  limitations 
should  be  recognized  more  promptly  and  more  clearly 
by  the  principal  himself  than  by  any  one  else.  He 
should  be  the  first,  when  occasion  arises,  to  point 
them  out ;  at  least,  he  should  be  the  last  to  show 
feeling  because  they  exist.  This,  of  course,  does  not 
preclude  his  questioning  them  intelligently  and  dis- 
passionately in  his  extra-contractual  capacity  as 
an  educational  expert,  but  this,  again,  belongs  to 
his  general  relation. 

The  following  are  specific  instances,  which  could  be 
readily  multiplied,  illustrative  of  the  distinction  between 
administration  by  personal  feeling  and  administration 
by  dignified  execution  of  law. 

The  New  York  State  law  provides  that  no  pupil  shall 
be  admitted  to  a  public  school  unless  he  has  been  prop- 
erly vaccinated.  Many  physicians  and  others  agitate 
for  a  repeal  of  this  law,  sincerely  disbelieving  in  the 
efficacy  of  vaccination.  Protest  is  occasionally  made 
by  the  parent  to  the  principal  that  his  child  "ought" 


THE  'PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  29 

to  be  admitted  without  having  been  vaccinated.  The 
parent  maybe  openly  vehement  or  insidiously  persuasive. 
It  is  clear  that  the  principal  has  no  discretion  in  the 
matter.  He  is  limited  by  the  law  and  has  the  single  duty 
of  refusing  to  admit  the  child.  He  may  agree  with  the 
parent  as  to  the  law,  in  fact  may  be  an  agitator  for 
its  repeal;  or  he  may  believe  thoroughly  in  the 
law  and  deprecate  the  parent's  fear  as  foolishness. 
But  in  his  office  he  simply  states  the  law,  unmoved, 
by  either  vehemence  or  persuasion,  to  any  display  of 
emotion. 

The  by-laws  in  a  certain  city  provided  that  no  teacher 
should  leave  the  school  building  at  the  noon  intermission 
without  the  consent  of  the  principal.  The  rules  were 
amended  so  that  the  teacher  might  leave  unless  expressly 
required  by  the  principal  to  remain.  This,  it  is  seen, 
was  a  limitation  placed  upon  the  former  power  of  the 
principal :  formerly,  the  initiative  and  the  burden  of 
proof  were  upon  the  teacher ;  latterly,  upon  the  princi- 
pal. Some  principals  assiduously  refrained  from  letting 
their  teachers  know  of  the  change,  not  liking  to  acknowl- 
edge even  this  slight  new  limitation  upon  their  authority. 
Others  immediately  notified  their  teachers  of  the  new 
status. 

The  questionable  policy  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
principal  of  one  city  school  who,  explaining  a  certain 
form  he  uses  in  rating  teachers,  says  in  reference  to  one 
item,  "That  is  not  official,  but  I  make  the  teachers 
think  it  is." 


30   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

General  versus  specific  duties.  Sufficient  has 
been  said  to  establish  the  broad  distinction  between 
the  general,  philosophic  duties  of  the  principal  and 
his  specific,  contractual  duties.  It  is  the  latter 
which  come  properly  within  the  purview  of  this 
volume,  so  that  henceforward  little  direct  reference 
will  be  made  to  the  larger  field.  Throughout  the 
subsequent  discussion,  however,  the  reader  will 
scan  the  author's  prose  of  technical  details  to  the 
rhythm  of  his  own  personal  ideals.  For,  after  all, 
the  general  duty  of  the  school  man  is,  in  a  word, 
to  give  concrete  expression  to  his  own  ideals.  It  is  a 
personal  rite,  determined  by  character  itself;  yet 
a  matter  of  moment,  for  —  and  we  may  say  it 
sanely  —  the  future  of  the  race  depends  upon  the 
character  and  progressive  ideals  of  its  educators. 

Summary.  The  principal  is  the  agent  of  the 
State  and  has  a  twofold  relation  to  his  work.  He 
has  a  general  relation,  based  on  his  debt  to  society 
as  a  professional  man,  which  places  upon  him  cer- 
tain obligations,  among  them  four :  to  secure  recog- 
nition of  teaching  as  a  profession ;  to  win  for  himself 
professional  recognition;  to  evaluate  the  school 
environment;  and  to  render  expert  service  to  the 
community.     He  has  a  special  relation,  based  upon 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  STATE  31 

his  position  as  principal  of  a  particular  school, 
which  places  upon  him  the  obligation  of  meeting  the 
terms  of  his  contract.  His  obligations  are  funda- 
mentally legal  rather  than  pedagogic,  and  the  prin- 
cipal should  familiarize  himself  thoroughly  with  his 
legal  status,  learning  clearly  his  rights,  his  duties, 
and  his  limitations. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   PRINCIPAL   AND   THE   PUBLIC 

The  parents.  It  is  a  very  concrete  and  personal 
public  with  which  the  principal  comes  into  daily 
intercourse.  Most  numerous  and  most  important 
of  all  the  visitors  to  the  school  are  the  parents  of 
the  pupils  therein.  The  spirit  in  which  they  are 
received,  it  must  be  confessed,  varies  considerably 
in  different  schools.  One  extreme  type  of  principal 
assumes  that,  as  he  is  the  expert  and  the  parents  are 
laymen,  the  affairs  of  the  school  are  his  business 
alone,  and  consequently  that  the  parent  has  com- 
pletely fulfilled  his  function  when  he  has  enrolled 
his  child  in  the  school.  Some  parents  by  nature, 
and  many  parents  when  brought  to  it,  will  accept 
this  status.  If  Dorothy  does  not  learn  her  lessons, 
"  Well,"  say  they,  "it  is  the  business  of  the  school 
to  teach  her " ;  if  Richard  misbehaves,  it  is  no 
concern  of  theirs,  —  "Are  not  the  teachers  paid  to 
discipline  him?  " 

Principal  and  parents.  Technically  and  ab- 
stractly, this  relation  between  school  and  parents 

32 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PUBLIC  33 

is  correct,  and  under  certain  idealized  conditions 
perhaps  tenable.  But  practically  it  cannot  be 
maintained.  A  principal  cannot  successfully  con- 
duct his  school  on  a  basis  of  consistently  disregarding 
the  parents.  The  attempt  would  imply  that  he 
would  never  enlist  the  cooperation  of  parents  nor 
even  report  to  them  upon  the  standing  of  pupils. 
It  would  indicate,  too,  that  he  regarded  his  con- 
tractual limitations  as  few  and  that  he  but  scantily 
recognized  his  general  obligations. 

The  type  of  principal  at  the  other  extreme  is 
he  who  questions  his  own  professional  equipment, 
who,  like  some  of  his  patrons,1  as  he  would  call 
them,  believes  that  "  anyone  can  teach/'  and  who 

1  The  word  "patron"  is  of  questionable  use  as  applied  to  the 
parents  of  pupils  in  a  public  school.  See  author's  The  Status  of 
the  Teacher: 

"It  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly  that  the  public  school 
is  not  a  close  corporation  representing  the  private  interests  of  the 
people  of  a  local  community.  It  is  not  an  institution  toward 
which  the  parents  of  enrolled  children  stand  as  patrons  and  all 
other  citizens  as  unrelated  and  unconcerned  aliens."  —  page  15. 

"It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  public  school  teacher  is  not  in  the 
employ  of  the  parents  of  his  pupils  nor  of  the  citizens  of  the 
community ;  hence  his  authority  is  not  derived  from  parents  or 
community."  —  page  18. 

"The  teacher's  legal  position  in  the  school  is  entirely  independ- 
ent of  the  parents  and  other  citizens."  —  page  32. 
d 


34   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

supinely  surrenders  to  the  exactions  of  unreasonable 
parents.  Parents  respond  as  readily  to  this  attitude 
as  to  the  other.  If  the  principal  questions  his  own 
technical  ability,  there  is  little  reason  for  them  to 
respect  it.  Moreover,  there  is  something  of  the 
teacher  in  everyone.  The  average  American  father 
has  "  views  "  on  teaching  —  which,  of  course,  in 
the  long  run  is  good  for  the  school  as  an  institution 
—  and  many  an  American  mother  thinks  that  her 
child,  at  least,  can  be  educated  without  training. 

It  is  natural  that  there  should  be  occasional 
differences  of  opinion  between  principal  and  parent. 
Must  the  principal  ignore  the  parents,  or  must  he 
abdicate  in  their  favor?  Surely,  neither.  He  may 
have  their  cooperation  and  at  the  same  time  maintain 
his  own  independence. 

Cooperation.  The  principal  should  seek  the  co- 
operation of  parents  because :  (i)  usually  his  con- 
tract either  explicitly  or  implicitly  requires  it; 
(2)  the  legitimate  interest  of  the  parent  in  the 
school  should  be  recognized  and  respected ;  (3)  the 
school  should  always  endeavor  to  maintain  in  the 
minds  of  its  pupils  the  sacredness  of  the  home, 
and  never,  when  avoidable,  weaken  the  authority 
of  the  parent ;  and  (4)  better  results  in  instruction 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  PUBLIC  35 

and  discipline  can  usually  be  obtained  with  it  than 
without  it. 

The  principal  should  maintain  his  own  inde- 
pendence because :  (1)  his  contract  holds  him  and 
not  the  parents  responsible  for  the  work  and  results 
of  his  school ;  (2)  he  is  better  equipped  technically 
than  the  parents,  or  else  should  not  hold  his  office ; 
(3)  the  parents  will  the  better  respect  him  and  the 
school  as  an  institution;  and  (4)  the  parents  will 
cooperate  with  him  the  more  intelligently. 

To  strike  the  balance  between  the  demands  of 
these  two  duties  is  one  of  the  principal's  chief 
problems.  The  maintenance  of  his  own  adminis- 
trative authority  is  dependent  mainly  upon  his 
courteous  but  firm  stand  with  the  individual  parent, 
as  occasion  arises.  To  the  questioning  parent  he 
may  explain  exactly  what  his  contractual  obligations 
are,  how  necessary  it  is  that  any  institution  shall  be 
consistently  administered  by  a  responsible  executive, 
and  how  the  interests  of  the  parent  and  his  children 
are  much  better  conserved  by  vesting  the  principal 
with  a  considerable  measure  of  independence  than 
by  surrendering  the  management  of  the  school  to  the 
exactions  of  outsiders. 

Encouraging  cooperation.     On  the  other  hand,  the 


36        THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

principal  and  his  school  need  the  sympathetic  co- 
operation of  the  parents.  This  cooperation  will  be 
attained  largely  by  the  principal's  attitude  toward 
individual  parents  as  he  meets  them  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  school  business.  By  his  manner  and  speech 
he  may  convince  them  that  their  interest  in  the 
school  is  welcomed  and  appreciated.  But  since  most 
citizens  have  an  inadequate  comprehension  of  the 
work  of  the  school,  gained  secondhand  through  the 
reports  of  their  own  or  their  neighbors'  children, 
the  principal  cannot  depend  solely  upon  the  influence 
he  exerts  through  these  chance  meetings  with  the 
occasional  visitor.  If  the  cooperation  is  to  be  intel- 
ligent and  fruitful,  he  must  take  formal  means  of 
soliciting  it. 

i.  Inviting  visitation.  The  principal  may  con- 
stantly advertise  —  through  the  pupils,1  at  school 

1  In  most  cities  the  report  cards  sent  home  to  parents  bear  an 
invitation  for  them  to  visit  the  school.  Detroit  and  Louisville 
carry  the  identic  legend,  which  is  typical  of  those  generally  in  use : 

"The  home  and  the  school  should  work  together  for  the  good 
of  the  child.  It  is  important  that  the  teacher  should  be  fully 
informed  as  to  the  child's  physical  condition,  life  outside  of  school, 
and  previous  history.  Parents  are  cordially  invited  to  confer 
with  the  teacher  or  principal." 

Freeport,  N.  Y.,  includes  in  its  Teacher's  Monthly  Report  the 
item  "  Calls  at  school  by  parents."    Four  other  items  are  of  interest, 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  PUBLIC  37 

exercises,  at  public  meetings  in  the  community  — 
the  fact  that  he  recognizes  that  the  school  is  a  pub- 
lic institution  and  hence  that  it  is  the  privilege  of 
the  people  to  familiarize  themselves  with  its  work. 
They  must  be  made  to  feel  that  they  have  a  stand- 
ing invitation  to  visit  the  school  for  the  purpose  of 
observation,  and  that  when  they  arrive  they  will  be 
welcome.1  If  the  business  man  can  be  brought  to 
spend  an  hour  in  the  classroom  observing  the  regular 
work  of  teacher  and  pupils,  he  is  much  more  likely 
to  become  a  sympathetic  supporter  of  the  school 
and  of  the  cause  of  public  education  than  if  subjected 
to  hours  of  academic  argument. 

in  passing :  Calls  at  pupils'  homes  by  the  teacher ;  Number  of  grade 
library  books  drawn  for  home  use ;  Number  of  grade  library  books 
drawn  for  school  reading ;  Date  of  last  formal  book  inspection. 

1  New  Orleans  incorporates  its  invitation  in  its  by-laws :  "  Visitors 
interested  in  the  schools  are  always  welcome.  They  shall  present 
themselves  to  the  Principal  upon  visiting  the  school,  furnishing 
their  names  and  addresses  and  the  reason  for  their  visit.  The 
Principal  may  decline  the  privilege  to  any  visitor,  provided  the 
reason  for  such  visit  is  not  satisfactory,  unless  the  visitor  holds  a 
permit  from  the  Superintendent,  or  from  the  Medical  Director,  or 
from  a  member  of  this  Board.  In  case  of  the  refusal  of  this  privi- 
lege to  any  visitor  by  any  Principal,  the  said  Principal  shall  im- 
mediately report  the  name,  facts,  and  causes  to  the  Superintend- 
ent."—IV,  4. 

New  Orleans  also  requires  visitors,  "whether  employees  of  the 
system  or  not,"  to  register  in  the  book  kept  for  that  purpose. 


38   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  business  of  the  school 
should  not  be  interfered  with  to  this  extent,  that  the 
classes  should  not  be  disturbed  in  their  work,  and  that 
the  principal  cannot  give  time  to  visitors.  In  actual 
practice  these  objections  are  scarcely  valid,  because  the 
response  to  the  principal's  invitation,  however  heartily 
and  persistently  it  may  be  given,  is  usually  anything 
but  overwhelming.  If  each  class  had  but  a  single  visitor 
daily,  a  school  of  forty  classes  would  receive  nearly  eight 
thousand  visitors  in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  presence 
of  a  caller,  or  even  of  a  number  of  callers,  ought  not  to  be 
a  source  of  embarrassment  to  either  teacher  or  pupils, 
who,  with  practice,  would  learn  to  welcome  the  visitor 
cordially,  disregard  him  as  a  disturbing  factor,  and  speed 
him  on  his  way,  enlightened  and  pleased.  As  to  the  de- 
mand upon  the  principal's  time,  if  he  found  that  the 
number  of  visitors  reached  a  serious  total,  he  could 
readily  enlist  the  services  of  older  pupils  to  act,  grace- 
fully and  with  profit  to  themselves,  as  hosts  and 
guides. 

2.  School  exhibits  and  meetings.  The  principal 
may  organize  school  exhibits,  special  exercises,  and 
other  meetings,  to  which  parents  are  particularly  and 
formally  invited.  The  following  general  suggestions 
are  submitted : 

(i)  In  a  large  school  the  visitors  may  be  received 
in  groups,  those  who  are  interested  in  pupils  in 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  PUBLIC  39 

certain  grades,  for  instance,  being  invited  for  certain 
different  times  and  dates. 

Such  meetings  are  easy  to  handle,  says  Mr.  R.  R. 
Savage,  principal,  Public  School  7,  Rochester,  and  adds 
that  they  "  enable  teachers  to  get  better  acquainted  with 
parents  than  at  the  large  gatherings.  Parents,  too,  feel 
a  common  interest  and  '  loosen  up '  in  discussion  of  edu- 
cational topics." 

The  meetings,  instead  of  coming  on  different  dates, 
one  afternoon  for  each  grade,  for  example,  may  be  held 
"all  at  once;  each  parent  going  to  the  room  or  rooms 
in  whose  work  he  is  most  interested ;  all  rooms  open  at 
the  same  time ;  an  auditorium  meeting  for  all  to  conclude 
the  proceedings.' '  —  Mr.  F.  M.  Underwood,  principal, 
Fanning  School,  St.  Louis.1 

1  The  following  is  a  sample  invitation  sent  home,  one  by  each 
pupil: 
To  the  Parents: 

You  are  cordially  invited  and  urgently  requested  to  attend  an 
open  meeting  at  the  Fanning  School.  THURSDAY  EVENING, 
Nov.  2nd,  at  7.30  p.m. 

1.  Come  and  see  the  work  of  the  children,  which  will  be  ex- 
hibited in  all  the  rooms.     7.30  to  8.15  p.m. 

2.  At  8.15  in  the  Kindergarten,  the  NEED  OF  A  BOND  ISSUE 
FOR  NEW  BUILDINGS  will  be  presented  by  able  speakers. 

Our  friend,  Assistant  Superintendent  C.  G.  Rathmann,  will 
show  by  a  very  interesting  set  of  lantern  slides,  the  conditions  and 
needs  in  our  schools  throughout  the  city.  Mr.  H.  A.  Rosskopf, 
Member  of  the  Board  of  Education,  and  one  of  our  own  patrons, 
will  give  other  angles  to  the  proposition.     COME ! 

FANNING  SCHOOL  FACULTY 
and  PATRONS  ASSOCIATION 


40       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

(2)  Evening  meetings  have  the  advantage  of 
enabling  more  of  the  men  to  attend.  Daytime 
meetings  have  the  advantage  of  permitting  the 
exhibit  of  regular  class  exercises,  although  certain 
forms  of  class  work  can  be  exhibited  in  the  evening. 

Miss  Anna  L.  Rice,  principal,  Lincoln  School,  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  makes  the  point  that  "Regular  work  in 
dancing,  gymnastics,  music,  or  dramatics  can  be  shown 
evenings  by  having  the  youngest  children  first  on  the 
program  and  then  excusing  them.  Fathers  are  greatly 
interested  in  these  programs,  much  more  than  in  the 
best  of  programs  by  adults." 

(3)  A  carefully  arranged  program  should  be 
provided.  Particularly  at  an  evening  meeting  the 
program  should  not  be  heavy,  as  hard-working 
parents  are  tired  and  will  better  respond  to  a 
program  frankly  entertaining  than  to  one  patently 
instructive.  In  the  one  case,  they  may  come  a 
second  time;  in  the  other,  they  are  likely  to  give 
thanksgiving  for  their  eventual  escape. 

"It  is  also  well,"  says  Mr.  Ernest  Shawen,  principal, 
Bellevue  Junior  High  School,  Richmond,  "  to  have  Visi- 
tors' Days,  when  the  regular  routine  is  followed,  in  order 
that  parents  and  friends  of  pupils  may  see  the  child's 
real  problems,  in  other  words  see  what  he  is '  up  against.' " 

Mr.  Henry  King,  principal,  Ashland  School,  Kansas 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PUBLIC  41 

City,  Mo.,  suggests  that  the  program  "should  provide  a 
place  for  patrons  as  well  as  for  pupils.  If  the  patrons  as 
well  as  the  pupils  and  teachers  do,  all  will  be  engaged  to- 
gether in  a  developing  situation." 

The  Brooklyn  Model  School  prepares  multigraphed 
circulars  to  be  given  to  the  parents.  The  following  is  a 
quotation  from  one  of  them  :  "  These  parents'  meetings, 
which  occur  about  once  in  two  months,  are  for  the  pur- 
pose of  letting  the  parents  see  the  work  of  the  school, 
and  of  making  an  occasion  for  conferences  with  the 
teachers  about  the  work,  conduct,  health,  and  other 
matters  affecting  the  children.  It  is  often  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  the  pupil  for  the  teacher  to  learn  what  the 
parents  have  to  say  about  his  home  lif e  and  home  condi- 
tions. It  may  also  be  of  advantage  to  the  pupil  for  the 
parent  to  inform  himself  more  fully,  by  a  personal  con- 
ference with  the  teacher,  as  to  the  school  standing  of  his 
child."  Some  of  the  topics  discussed  in  these  circulars 
are  :  Shopwork ;  Sewing ;  Cooking ;  Art  and  Construc- 
tion Work;  Reading;  Writing;  Arithmetic;  History 
and  Civics  —  all  pointing  to  means  of  cooperation  be- 
tween home  and  school. 

(4)  Addresses  by  men  and  women  of  local  or 
other  prominence  are  valuable,  provided  the  speaker 
can  talk  interestingly  and  effectively. 

Particularly  so,  suggests  Mr.  H.  S.  Philips,  principal, 
Alcott  School,  Denver,  "if  on  topics  directly  related  to 


42        THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

child  life,  talks  on  care  of  teeth,  formation  of  habits,  and 
like  topics  having  to  do  with  child  training." 

The  most  successful  address,  perhaps,  is  one  that  is 
brief  and  snappy  and  leads  to  general  discussion. 

(5)  An  exhibit  of  the  regular  work  of  the  pupils 
usually  proves  an  attraction.  This  work  may  in- 
clude not  only  the  written  and  tangible  products, 
but  also  oral,  musical,  manual,  dramatic,  and  gym- 
nastic exercises.  In  this  case,  each  parent  should 
be  brought  as  close  as  possible  to  his  own  child's 
work. 

One  principal  says,  "Care  should  be  taken  to  guard 
against  'show  work'  at  an  exhibit.  Pupils  and  teachers 
are  often  overworked  in  the  effort  to  put  up  a  good  show, 
which  too  often  bears  the  earmarks  of  made  to  order." 
A  principal  in  another  city  says,  "The  tangible,  the 
spectacular,  the  showy  things  are  what  attract  attention 
—  cooking,  sewing,  woodwork,  and  other  manual  prod- 
ucts." 

(6)  Teachers  should  not  use  the  occasion  to  make 
adverse  criticism  of  pupils  to  their  parents.  They 
should  say  only  the  commendatory  things,  leaving 
anything  unfavorable  for  a  special  interview  at  some 
other  time. 

Something  may  be  said  against  this  policy  —  that 
later  on  the  teacher  may  be  held  to  account  for  not  hav- 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PUBLIC  43 

ing  reported  the  unfavorable  points,  and  that  parents 
as  a  rule  appreciate  criticism  if  it  is  given  frankly  and  in 
a  kindly  spirit  —  but,  on  the  whole,  it  is  safe  practice  to 
follow.  Miss  Helen  K.  Yerkes,  principal,  Rudolph  S. 
Walton  School,  Philadelphia,  puts  it  well  when  she  says, 
"I  believe  in  a  frank  interchange  of  thought  regarding 
the  welfare  of  the  child ;  no  stilted  a  priori  decision  on 
what  shall  be  said." 

The  attitude  indicated  of  teacher  toward  parent  should 
be  reciprocated.  Parents  should  realize  that  teachers 
are  giving  freely  of  their  energy,  interest,  and  extra  time. 
No  parent  should  be  permitted  to  make  a  parents'  meet- 
ing an  occasion  for  upbraiding  a  teacher.  The  principal 
should  make  it  his  duty  to  protect  his  teachers.  He 
should  demand  of  parents  that  all  criticism  of  teachers  be 
made  formally  and  during  business  hours. 

(7)  Meetings  gain  in  importance  by  coming  not 
too  frequently,  and  by  being  held  on  some  significant 
date,  such  as  the  anniversary  of  the  date  on  which 
the  school  was  opened. 

There  are  arguments  both  for  and  against  periodic 
meetings.  A  scheduled  bimonthly  meeting  gives  chil- 
dren and  parents  something  definite  to  anticipate.  On 
the  other  hand,  added  zest  is  given  to  a  meeting  held 
unexpectedly  and  in  relation  to  some  significant  local  or 
national  event. 

It  is  well  to  have  the  first  meeting  early  in  the  term, 


44   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

so  that  parents  may  meet  their  children's  new  teachers, 
and  people  who  have  moved  into  the  district  during 
the  vacation  period  may  have  an  opportunity  to  get 
acquainted  with  the  school. 

Miss  Lydia  R.  Blaish,  supervising  principal,  Indian- 
apolis, points  out  that  "too  many  meetings  dissipate  the 
strength  and  interest  of  teachers."  The  effect  may  be 
the  same  on  pupils  and  parents. 

(8)  The  duty  of  receiving  the  visitors  on  these 
occasions  may  be  distributed  among  the  teachers, 
committees  of  whom  may  attend  to  the  different 
features  of  the  meeting.  Older  pupils  can  serve  as 
ushers,  care  for  younger  children  brought  by  mothers, 
and  help  in  other  ways. 

This  is  valuable  training  in  developing  responsibility, 
and  inculcates  interest  and  pride  in  the  school.  Miss 
Estelle  Purinton,  principal,  Holmes  School,  Spokane, 
testifies,  "We  have  been  most  successful  when  the  parents 
as  well  as  teachers  take  a  share  in  the  responsibility. 
They  are  glad  to  do  it.  The  pupils  are  also  valuable, 
and  it  is  a  matter  of  pride  with  parents  when  their  chil- 
dren are  given  positions  of  trust." 

3.  Parents'  associations.  The  principal  may  in- 
spire the  organization  of  Parents'  Associations  and 
act  with  them  for  the  benefit  of  the  school.    The 


THE   PRINCIPAL  AND   THE   PUBLIC  45 

meetings  of  such  an  association  will  differ  from  those 
called  by  the  principal,  in  that  he  will  cease  to 
exercise  his  authority  as  principal  and  become  only 
an  incidental  factor  in  the  proceedings.  The  less 
conspicuous  the  part  he  takes  in  the  meetings  the 
better  able  will  he  be  to  maintain  a  position  coor- 
dinate with  the  association  as  a  whole.  There  is 
always  the  danger  that,  through  ignorance  of  con- 
ditions or  through  personal  ambitions  or  jealousies 
of  members,  the  association  may  take  some  action 
which  in  effect  is  an  interference  with  the  principal's 
contractual  authority.  At  such  a  time  the  principal 
must  turn  the  enthusiasm  of  the  association  into 
more  legitimate  and  profitable  channels.  He  can 
do  this  more  graciously  and  more  effectively  if  he  has 
previously  refrained  during  meetings  from  discussing 
measures  voluntarily  from  the  floor. 

There  has  been  a  rapid  advance  within  recent 
years  in  realization  of  the  value  of  community 
interest  in  its  schools.  It  is,  in  a  measure,  part  of  a 
nation-wide  trend  toward  the  development  of  com- 
munity self-consciousness.  The  public  school  is 
the  one  chief  rallying  point,  the  one  institution  at 
hand  that  has  something  by  way  of  equipment  and 
at  the  same  time  represents  the  maximum  in  com- 


46       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

munal  sentiment.1  Typical  of  the  broader  city 
movements  is  that  in  Pittsburgh,  whose  Community 
Council  is  "  designed  to  bring  about  community 
expression,  cooperative  purpose,  and  patriotic  serv- 
ice by  making  every  public  school  building  a  rally- 
ing center  for  organized  activity,  educational  ex- 
tension, and  national  support."  2 

Where  the  organization  is  more  distinctly  a  local 
school  affair,  often  the  outgrowth  of  the  one-time 
Mothers'  Clubs  of  the  kindergarten,  it  frequently 
includes  the  teachers  in  its  membership  and  is 
known  as  a  Parent-Teacher  Association.  In  many 
cities  these  associations  have  been  federated  into  a 
city  organization.  The  Parent-Teacher  Federation 
of  Indianapolis  issues  a  bulletin  "as  a  means  of 
communication  between  the  Executive  Board  and 
the  various  Parent-Teacher  Associations." 

Portland,  Ore.,  says  Superintendent  L.  R.  Alderman, 
"is  unusually  fortunate  in  having  a  well-organized  system 
of  Parent-Teacher  organizations  .  .  .  plans  to  district  the 

1  The  National  Community  Center  Association  publishes,  at 
Mount  Morris,  111.,  a  bulletin  "The  Community  Center."  For 
bibliography  on  "Home  and  School"  see  Irving  King,  Social 
Aspects  of  Education,  p.  62. 

2  Mr.  J.  M.  Berkey,  Director  of  Special  Schools  and  Extension 
Work,  publishes  an  outline  of  the  work, 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  PUBLIC  47 

city  according  to  the  high  school  centers.  Once  each 
half-year,  the  Parent-Teacher  circles  tributary  to  the 
nearest  high  school  will  come  together  at  the  high  school 
building  for  a  union  meeting.  A  community  sing,  a 
talk,  an  exchange  of  ideas,  and  a  social  hour  will  usually 
make  up  the  program.  Music  and  readings  will  be 
supplied  by  the  high  school  boys  and  girls.  It  is  hoped 
that  more  of  the  circles  may  adopt  the  evening  hour  for 
holding  their  meetings,  in  order  that  both  parents  may 
attend."  In  Minneapolis  the  Parent-Teachers'  Council 
is  composed  of  delegates  from  all  the  parents'  and 
teachers'  associations  in  the  city.1 

1  A  printed  form  is  supplied,  as  follows : 

Minneapolis  Public  Schools       School 

Parents : 

The  schools  are  for  your  children.  You  must  show  an  interest 
in  what  is  being  done  for  them  if  you  expect  teachers  and  prin- 
cipals to  do  their  best.  We  ask  you,  therefore,  to  sign  this  card 
promising  to  visit  the  schools. 

Yours  for  the  schools  and  the  children, 
Approved:  Bent.  F.  Ward,  Pres., 
B.  B.  Jackson,  Supt.  of  Schools,           Parent-Teachers,  Council 
Principal 

I  shall  visit School  at  least  once  this  year. 

[Parent  or  Guardian] 


191 . .  Address 

(To  be  returned  at  once  to  Principal) 


48   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Parents'  and  parent-teachers'  organizations  may 
do  much  for  a  school,  not  alone  in  rendering  moral 
support,  but  also  in  raising  money  for  decorations 

A  typical  invitation  form  is : 

The  Mothers'  &  Teachers'  Association 

of  THE 
Webster  School 

Will  hold  a  meeting  on  Wednesday 

at  j  p.m.  in  the  school  Auditorium. 

An  interesting  program  will  be  given 

after  which  refreshments  will  be  served. 

At  the  Lincoln  School,  Springfield,  Mass.,  the  following  forms 
are  used : 

I  am  in  sympathy  with  the  object 

for  which  the  Lincoln  School 
Mothers'  Club  is  organized,  and 
wish  to  be  enrolled  as  a  member. 

Signature 

P.  O.  Address 

Dues  are  payable  in  September  and  February 
or  in  full  in  September. 

Parents1  Evening 

The  Lincoln  School  Mothers'  Club 

cordially  invites  the  parents  of 

to  meet  informally  the  Principal  and  Teachers  of 

Lincoln  School,  Club  Members  and  Each  Other 

in  the  Assembly  Hall  of  the  School,  on  Tuesday 

evening,  November  sixteenth,  from  eight  to  ten 

o'clock. 
Eight  to  Nine  Nine  to  Ten 

Social  Hour  Music  and  Dancing 


THE   PRINCIPAL  AND   THE   PUBLIC  49 

and  equipment  supplementary  to  that  officially 
provided.1  The  principal  has  only  to  encourage 
and  guide  the  latent  enthusiasm  in  the  community 
in  order  to  have  one  more  force  at  hand  contribut- 
ing to  the  best  interests  of  his  school. 

4.  Individual  conference.  The  principal  may  on 
occasion  formally  request  cooperation  of  the  indi- 
vidual parent  on  behalf  of  his  children.  These 
occasions,  arising  chiefly  from  lapses  of  pupils  in 
their  work  or  behavior,  are  later  discussed  in  their 
appropriate  connections.  He  has  here,  however,  an 
opportunity  to  invite  the  visitor,  after  he  has  fin- 
ished the  special  business  concerning  which  he 
called,  to  visit  classrooms  and  inspect  the  regular 
school  work. 

The  disputatious  parent.  Cooperation  is  not 
always  the  keynote  struck  by  the  parent  in  his  song 
of  the  school.  So  long  as  children  are  incompetent 
witnesses,  so  long  as  it  is  a  passion  with  some  people 

1  Minneapolis  rules  provide  for  bequests:  "Pictures,  statuary, 
musical  instruments  and  records,  stereopticons  and  slides,  and  such 
useful  and  ornamental  apparatus  and  furniture  as  a  school  may 
need  may  be  purchased  by  the  Parent-Teachers'  Association  and 
presented  to  the  school.  All  such  memorials,  apparatus,  and 
furniture  shall  thereafter  remain  the  property  of  the  school  and 
consequently  of  the  Board  of  Education.' '  —  IX,  16. 

E 


50   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

to  "  shoot  first  and  argue  afterward,"  and  so  long  as 
teachers  are  terrene,  and  share  human  frailties,  just 
so  long  will  misunderstandings  arise  between  school 
and  parents.  Hence  we  must  consider,  however 
reluctantly,  the  case  of  the  parent  with  a  grievance. 
The  schools,  as  we  have  noted,  are  an  instrument 
of  the  State.  The  State  supports  the  school.  The 
State  pays  the  salaries  of  its  teachers  for  minister- 
ing to  its  children.  The  principal  will  receive  the 
parent  with  a  grievance,  not  alone  with  the  respect 
due  him  as  a  gentleman,  but  also  with  the  respect 
due  a  fellow-member  of  the  great  firm  of  The  State, 
and  will  give  him  the  attention  necessary  to  secure 
justice  for  him,  his  child,  and  the  school.  But  when 
the  parent  strives  to  secure  for  his  child  some  specific 
consideration  which  is  not  his  due  and  to  grant 
which  would  be  an  injustice  to  the  children  of  the 
other  partners  of  the  firm  of  The  State,  then  must 
the  principal  stand  steadfast,  even  against  the 
parent's  specious  plea  that  he  is  a  taxpayer  and  pays 
the  principal's  salary. 

The  point  that  the  relation  between  parent  and  teacher 
is  one  involving  mutual  consideration  is  well  brought 
out  by  the  New  Orleans  by-law :  "  A  parent  or  guardian 
dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of  anyVteacher  toward  his 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  PUBLIC  51 

child  or  ward  shall  first  lay  his  complaint  before  the 
Principal,  and,  if  not  satisfied,  may  complain  in  writing 
to  the  Superintendent,  who  shall  investigate  the  charge, 
and,  on  demand  of  the  parent  or  guardian,  shall  report 
thereon  to  the  next  meeting  of  this  Board.  Should  the 
teacher  be  called  to  account  or  be  reproved  in  an  offen- 
sive manner  in  the  classroom  or  elsewhere,  verbally  or  in 
writing,  by  a  parent  or  guardian,  the  child  or  ward  of 
such  parent  or  guardian  shall,  by  reason  of  such  conduct, 
be  liable  to  expulsion."  —  IV,  1. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  all  parents,  or 
even  any  large  number  of  them,  who  visit  schools 
are  unreasonable.  The  great  majority  of  them 
are  quite  the  otherwise,  —  intelligent,  well-meaning, 
and  helpful.  But  unfortunately  the  unreasonable 
parent  exists  and  must  be  reckoned  with,  and  as  it 
is  the  exceptional  case  that  makes  the  serious 
problem  in  school  administration,  the  emphasis 
must  be  placed  here,  as  elsewhere,  upon  the  excep- 
tional occurrence. 

Many  of  the  difficulties  arising  between  school  and 
home  are  based  upon  misunderstanding  of  school  condi- 
tions and  school  requirements  on  the  part  of  parents. 
The  Department  of  Education  in  any  city  should  give 
parents  of  pupils  and  all  citizens  widespread  information 
concerning  the  schools.     Kansas  City  provides  a  "  Circu- 


52        THE   MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

lar  of  Information  to  Parents,"  sent  out  from  the  princi- 
pal's office,  dated  and  addressed  to  the  individual,  with 
the  following  preamble : 

Your  attention  is  respectfully  called  to  the  information 
herein  submitted,  and  I  earnestly  ask  for  your  kind  co- 
operation in  regard  to  the  same.  If  your  child  is  not  in 
good  health,  or  a  sufferer  in  any  other  way,  please  inform 
the  teacher,  if  you  think  it  necessary. 
Very  respectfully, 

(Signed)  Principal. 

This  is  followed  by  detailed  information  on  each  of 
twelve  topics :  School  time ;  the  actual  length  of  the 
school  year;  the  compulsory  education  law;  sickness; 
parents'  visit  to  school;  reinstatement;  deportment; 
cleanliness ;  injury  of  school  property ;  absence  and  tardi- 
ness ;  excuse  for  absence ;  leaving  during  school  session. 

Dr.  Frank  K.  Perkins,  principal,  Public  School  26, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  sends  the  following 

Notice  to  Parents 

Children  should  be  in  their  classes  at  5  minutes  before  9 
and  5  minutes  before  1  each  day. 

When  a  child  is  absent  or  late,  please  to  send  a  note  of 
excuse.  This  is  for  the  protection  of  the  child.  When  a 
child  is  detained  at  home  by  reason  of  illness,  please  to 
notify  the  school,  stating  the  length  of  time  he  or  she  will 
be  absent. 

It  is  requested  that  parents  do  not  give  notes  to  children 
asking  early  dismissal,  except  in  special  cases. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  PUBLIC  53 

There  is  home  study  or  home  work  every  night.  This 
is  not  always  written  work,  but  may  be  lessons  to  be  recited 
in  the  class  next  day.  If  your  child  says  he  has  no  lessons 
to  study  or  home  work  to  do,  call  at  the  school  to  find  the 
reason. 

If  the  monthly  report  card  shows  "C"  or  "D,"  your 
child  has  fallen  below  the  class  standard  in  the  subject  so 
marked.  The  teacher  will  be  glad  to  consult  with  you  as 
to  the  best  means  of  securing  improvement. 

To  be  returned  with  the  parent's  signature. 

Seattle  publishes,  by  authority  of  the  Board  of  School 
Directors,  a  monthly  four-page  bulletin  "for  increased 
cooperation  between  home  and  school."  It  is  edited 
by  the  superintendent  of  schools  and  contains  such  items 
as  summary  of  expenditures  for  the  year,  pictures  of  new 
school  buildings,  description  and  views  of  work  in  the 
classroom,  and  special  articles  of  interest. 

Correspondence  with  parents.  In  dealing  with 
an  unreasonable  parent  it  is  well  to  assume  that  he 
is  reasonable  or  at  least  that  he  is  going  to  become 
reasonable.  Acting  upon  misunderstanding  or  lack 
of  understanding,  parents  write  irritating  letters  to 
the  teachers  or  principal.  It  is  good  policy  to 
answer  all  letters  from  parents,  including  those  that 
are  critical  or  condemnatory.  The  temptation  is 
strong  to  ignore  the  ill-tempered  communication,  or 
else  to  reply  in  kind.    If  it  is  ignored,  the  parent 


54   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

is  likely  to  follow  the  first  letter  with  a  second, 
written  in  great  temper,  and  perhaps  follow  that 
with  a  visit  to  the  school,  which  he  makes  in  no 
pleasant  frame  of  mind,  and  which  leads  to  a  time- 
consuming  interview.  It  is  wiser  for  the  school 
to  take  the  parent  at  his  best,  assume  that  he  is 
sincere  in  his  communication  regardless  of  the 
language  in  which  it  is  couched,  and  reply  with 
moderation  and  dignity  and  in  the  spirit  of  evident 
desire  to  correct  the  wrong  impression  of  the  school 
which  the  parent  in  some  way  has  gained. 

Teachers  should  be  trained  to  refer  to  the  prin- 
cipal all  communications  of  this  character  received  by 
them.1  It  is  better  for  the  principal  to  judge  which 
communications  should  be  answered  and  to  decide 
upon  the  nature  of  the  reply,  than  for  the  individual 
teacher,  acting  upon  impulse,  to  dash  off  a  hasty 
rejoinder.  The  parent  who  receives  from  the 
principal  a  dignified  reply  to  a  letter  written  to  a 
teacher,  realizes  that  he  is  being  taken  seriously; 
that  the  teacher  is  not  reluctant  to  submit  the  matter 

1  Omaha  requires  that  principals  "shall  approve  all  notes  sent 
to  parents  by  teachers ;  and  no  note  shall  be  sent  by  a  teacher  to 
a  parent  or  guardian  in  relation  to  the  scholarship  or  conduct  of 
any  child  unless  such  note  has  been  presented  to  the  principal  for 
approval."  —  VI,  3. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PUBLIC  55 

under  dispute  to  the  attention  and  judgment  of  the 
principal  and  that  she  has  behind  her  the  voice 
and  authority  of  the  principal ;  and  that  the  school 
is  taking  patient  and  sincere  cognizance  of  his 
grievance,  whether  it  be  real  or  fancied.  In  most 
cases  it  is  unreal,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that 
it  is  based  upon  the  testimony  of  a  child,  —  his 
child,  —  and  such  testimony  is  by  the  nature  of 
the  case  biased  and  unreliable.  "  Despite  the 
fact  that  the  law  has  always  recognized  the  total 
incapacity  of  children  to  see,  to  remember,  and  to 
express  the  truth,  the  testimony  of  children  regarding 
teachers  continues  to  be  taken.  Such  testimony  is 
almost  worthless."  1  Usually  but  a  few  brief  state- 
ments of  fact  are  required  to  set  the  parent  straight. 
These  given,  he  becomes  a  friend  and  supporter  of 
the  school ;  withheld  or  given  in  a  highly  colored  or 
hot-tempered  way,  he  becomes  a  critic  of  the  school 
and  an  instigator  of  trouble. 

1  William  Estabrook  Chancellor,  Our  Schools — Their  Adminis- 
tration and  Supervision,  p.  341. 

He  adds :  "  Whether  favorable  or  unfavorable  to  the  teacher, 
whether  upon  a  special  fact  or  a  general  matter,  the  testimony  of 
one  pupil  or  of  several,  is  never  to  be  taken.  This  is  true  even  of 
high-school  pupils.  It  is  difficult  for  even  well-educated  men  to 
know  and  to  remember  the  truth  of  a  conversation  or  of  an  event." 


56       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Every  teacher's  experience  assures  her  that  parents 
do  send  hastily  written  notes,  based  on  error.  A  few 
such  letters,  received  in  a  city  school,  are  here  given, 
together  with  the  replies  in  each  case : 

d) 

Miss  Smith, 

It  is  unusual  for  Victor  to  get  such  a  low  mark  in  deport- 
ment. I  think  you  have  made  a  great  mistake.  I  have 
erased  same  on  his  card.  Trusting  you  will  reconsider 
this.    You  will  oblige  me  very  much.      Mrs.  I.  T.  Brown. 

Public  School  No.  ioo, 
Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 
New  York,  Oct.  5,  19 18. 
Mrs.  I.  T.  Brown, 

152  Fulton  St.,  N.  Y. 
Dear  Madam: 

Miss  Smith  has  referred  to  me  your  note  in  regard  to 
Victor's  rating  in  deportment.  I  think  you  are  under  some 
misapprehension  as  to  the  status  of  our  report  cards.  The 
card  shows  a  pupil's  standing  at  the  close  of  the  month,  and 
is  copied  from  the  official  record.  That  record  represents 
the  work  actually  done  by  the  pupil  and  not  what  we  might 
wish  he  had  done.  I  send  you  a  duplicate  of  the  card ;  will 
you  kindly  sign  the  same  and  return  it  to  the  school  ?  If  at 
any  time  you  desire  further  information  as  to  Victor's  record 
than  is  indicated  by  the  report  card,  I  should  be  glad  to  have 
you  call  here  for  a  personal  conference. 

Respectfully  yours, 
Henry  Jones, 
Principal. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE   PUBLIC  57 

(2)  New  York,  Sept.  30/18. 
Public  School  No.  100 

Mr.  Henry  Jones 
Dear  Sir 

I  think  that  my  Dauther  Martha  studies  her  home  work 
as  hard  as  any  pupil  in  the  school  room,  and  I  do  not  see 
why  these  notes  are  sent  to  my  home  Hopeing  I  will  hear  no 
more  complants  about  her  hearaf  ter 

I  Remain  verry  Respectfully 
R.Haas 

Public  School  No.  100, 

Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 

New  York,  Oct.  1,  19 18. 
Mr.  R.  Haas, 

69  Division  Ave.,  N.  Y. 
Dear  Sir: 

Your  favor  of  Sept.  30th  is  at  hand.     It  is  evident  that 

you  are  much  interested  in  the  welfare  of  your  daughter. 

We  are  too,  and  communications  in  regard  to  her  progress 

are  sent  you  in  order  to  further  her  advancement.    I  am  sure 

that  you  will  see  it  in  this  light. 

Respectfully  yours, 

Henry  Jones, 

Principal. 

(3)  Oct  17th  1918 
Miss  Green 

Dear  Madam 

If  this  Grammar  is  not  satisfactory  what  my  daughter 
Elenora  has  written,  I  will  have  to  bring  this  matter  to  a 
higher  authority, 

Resp'  yours  Wm  White 


58       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Public  School  No.  ioo, 

Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 

New  York,  Oct.  18,  1918. 
Mr.  Wm.  White, 

Dear  Sir: 

Miss  Green  has  referred  to  me  your  favor  of  the  17th. 

I  do  not  understand  your  attitude.     You  certainly  desire 

that  Elenora  may  profit  from  her  school  work,  and  I  believe 

that  you  wish  to  cooperate  with  us.     Miss  Green  has  your 

daughter's  interests  at  heart.     Shall  we  not  leave  it  to  her 

to  decide  what  Elenora  should  or  should  not  do  ? 

Respectfully  yours, 

Henry  Jones, 

Principal. 

It  is  not  presumed  that  the  replies  here  given  are  the 
best  that  could  be  made,  but  they  are  submitted  as  illus- 
trative of  the  principle  that  dignified  and  courteous 
answers  may  be  written  even  to  provoking  letters. 

The  principal^  correspondence  should  be  written 

in   complete  form,   as   to  heading,   superscription, 

subscription,    etc.     If   typewritten,1    so   much   the 

better,  not  only  because  of  improved  appearance 

but  because  carbon  copies  can  thus  be  obtained, 

one  for  riling  and  one  to  be  given  to  the  teacher. 

1  Mr.  William  Rabenort,  principal,  Intermediate  School  55, 
Bronx,  New  York,  has  higher-grade  pupils  type  his  letters  and 
rubber-stamp  them: 

This  letter  was  typed  by 
a  pupil  of  class . 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PUBLIC  59 

It  is  but  fair  to  the  teacher  that  she  should  know 
what  disposition  has  been  made  of  a  case  that 
concerns  her ;  moreover,  the  policy  of  the  principal 
is  thus  best  brought  to  the  teacher's  attention. 
The  typewritten  letter  also  strengthens  the  parent's 
impression  that  straightforward  business  attention 
has  been  accorded  him.  The  parent  who  in  anger 
has  picked  up  the  sheet  of  paper  nearest  at  hand 
and  hastily  scribbled  a  note  "  calling  down  "  the 
teacher,  is  sure  to  be  impressed  by  a  reply  from  the 
principal  that  is  serious,  official,  authoritative,  neatly 
and  carefully  arranged,  and  couched  in  polite  and 
respectful  language;  thus  the  parent  is  educated, 
and  the  pupil  benefits  through  the  higher  ideal 
introduced  into  the  home. 

Interviews  with  parents.  Unreasonableness  comes 
to  the  school  not  alone  in  written  form  but  frequently 
as  a  visit  from  the  parent.  Again,  it  should  be  the 
principal  who  receives  the  parent  and  adjusts  his 
complaint. 

It  is  wise  for  the  principal  to  set  aside  certain  times 
of  the  day  for  the  reception  of  visitors.  Some  cities 
require  it,  for  example,  San  Francisco  :  "Principals  shall 
keep  regular  office  hours  on  each  day  for  the  transaction 
of  general  school  business.  Notice  of  office  hours  shall 
be  posted  by  principals  on  their  office  doors."  —  32,  13. 


60       THE  MANAGEMENT  OP  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

In  interviews  the  principal  should  avoid  using  such 
phrases  as  "I  haven't  any  time."  He  should  even  meet 
the  parent- visitor's  apologetic  "I  am  sorry  to  take  your 
time"  with  "I  am  here  for  just  this  business."  This 
attitude  is  not  at  all  inconsistent  with  a  scheme  of  limit- 
ing the  total  amount  of  time  given  to  interviews  by  means 
of  office  hours  or  a  system  of  appointments. 

The  same  respectful  dignity  which  the  principal 
puts  into  a  written  reply  he  will  put  into  his  personal 
interview.  He  must  impress  upon  the  parent  his 
desire  to  secure  right  and  justice,  his  readiness  to 
set  matters  straight,  and,  at  the  same  time,  his 
intention  to  keep  the  argument  to  facts  and  to  the 
point  at  issue.  He  will  decide  whether  the  best 
interests  of  the  case  demand  that  the  parent  and 
the  teacher  shall  meet.  Usually  it  is  better  that 
they  should.  All  interviews  of  a  controversial 
nature  between  parent  and  teacher  should  be  held 
in  the  office  of  the  principal.  No  parent  should  be 
permitted  to  interview  a  teacher  at  her  classroom. 
Notice  to  this  effect  should  be  conspicuously  posted 
in  the  hallways,  and  teachers  trained  to  refuse 
to  enter  upon  such  an  interview.1 

1  Mandatory  in  certain  cities,  e.g.  Louisville :  "  Visitors  to  any 
school  shall  be  admitted  through  the  office  of  the  principal  only, 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PUBLIC  61 

Many  parents,  innocently  enough,  go  directly  to  the 
classroom  to  give  their  message  to  the  teacher.  The 
message  may  be  merely  that  Jane  cannot  come  to-day 
because  she  has  a  toothache.  In  this  case  the  risk  is 
that,  once  inside  the  room,  the  fond  mother  and  sym- 
pathetic teacher  will  be  led  into  an  animated  conversa- 
tion relative  to  Jane's  career,  the  last  time  Will  had 
the  measles  or  Tom  the  mumps,  and  how  it  is  that  Jane 
inherits  her  temper  from  her  father  and  her  studiousness 
from  her  mother,  —  all  subjects  of  legitimate  exposition, 
but  not  when  fifty  pupils  are  losing  valuable  time.  In 
other  cases,  however,  the  tone  of  the  parent  is  anything 
but  mild,  and  there  is  danger  of  a  stormy  scene  being  en- 
acted in  the  presence  of  pupils,  despite  the  teacher's 
most  skillful  handling  of  the  situation.  So,  in  every  case, 
the  teacher  should  politely  but  firmly  direct  the  parent 
to  the  principal's  office  immediately  upon  his  appearance 
at  the  classroom  door. 

and  none  shall  be  permitted  to  enter  the  classroom  except  by 
consent  of  the  principal."  —  10,  8. 

One  of  the  few  exceptions  to  this  policy  is  in  Indianapolis,  whose 
rules  provide :  "  Complaints  of  parents  or  guardians  in  regard  to 
the  discipline  of  pupils,  or  any  matter  affecting  them,  shall  be 
made  first  to  the  teacher  and  then  to  the  principal  of  the  build- 
ing.",— XVIII,  i. 

Several  cities  make  a  practice  and  some  require  by  by-law  that 
principals  post  the  name  of  the  teacher  and  the  grade  of  the  class  on 
the  outside  of  the  door  of  each  classroom.  This  is  generally  done, 
however,  to  meet  the  convenience  of  internal  management  of  the 
school  and  not  for  the  information  of  the  public. 


62        THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

This  rule  enables  the  principal  to  dispose  of  a  great 
many  cases  without  referring  them  to  the  teacher 
and  without  taking  her  time  from  the  class. 
Whether,  during  an  interview  between  teacher  and 
parent,  the  principal  shall  follow  the  conversation 
or  even  remain  in  the  office,  is  a  matter  of  judgment 
as  to  the  individual  case.  If  it  is  an  amicable 
understanding  between  an  intelligent  parent  and  an 
experienced  teacher,  the  principal  may  safely  ignore 
its  details ;  if  a  storm  seems  imminent,  the  principal 
will  do  well  to  be  on  hand  to  pour  the  oil  upon  the 
troubled  waters. 

The  unreasonable  parent.  In  spite  of  the  utmost 
endeavor  on  the  part  of  principal  and  teachers  to 
present  fairly  the  side  of  the  school,  occasionally 
an  unreasonable  parent  remains  unconvinced.  His 
departure  is  made  with  the  time-honored  threat  to 
"  go  higher  "  or  to  "  report  you  to  the  Board  of 
Education "  or  "  to  the  Superintendent.' '  The 
principal  may  wisely  indicate  that  he  recognizes 
the  parent's  right  of  appeal ;  that  he  welcomes  the 
decision  of  disputed  matters  by  those  in  higher 
authority;  and  that,  if  necessary,  he  will  aid  the 
parent  to  secure  a  hearing.  Often  this  very  atti- 
tude, astonishing  to  the  complainant,  leads  him  to 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  PUBLIC  63 

take  a  different  view  of  the  matter  and  prompts  him 
to  settle  it  without  going  beyond  the  principal's  office. 
Other  visitors.  Although  parents  constitute  a 
majority  of  the  principal's  callers,  he  has  many 
other  visitors,  some  who  have  a  legitimate  claim 
upon  him  and  some  who  have  not.  The  former 
present  no  particular  problem,  but  to  deal  with  the 
latter  requires  constant  devotion  to  the  letter  and 
spirit  of  his  contract.  The  essence  of  that  contract 
is  that  the  principal's  time  and  energy  belong,  for 
value  received,  to  the  city  and  to  the  school;  yet 
it  is  surprising  how  many  people  fail  to  grasp  this 
fact,  or,  realizing  it  but  vaguely,  imagine  that  the 
principal  can  be  induced  on  their  behalf  to  prove 
false  to  his  trust. 

In  most  cities  such  visitors  are  made  the  subject  of  a 
paragraph  of  the  rules  for  the  management  of  the  schools. 
In  some  cases  the  prohibitory  provision  is  couched  in 
very  general  terms.  In  others  it  is  more  detailed  and 
comprehensive,  as  in  Louisville :  "  No  subscription  or 
contribution  for  any  purpose  whatever  shall  be  intro- 
duced into  any  school  without  the  special  consent  of  the 
board.  No  person  shall  be  permitted  to  visit  the  schools 
except  on  business  connected  with  the  schools.  No  ad- 
vertisements shall  be  read  to  the  pupils  of  any  school, 
on  the  premises  thereof,  or  posted  on  the  walls  of  fences 


64   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

of  any  school  building,  and  no  petition  of  any  kind  shall 
be  circulated  for  signatures  in  any  school  of  the  city ;  and 
no  agent  or  other  person  shall  be  permitted  to  enter  any 
school  premises  for  the  purpose  of  exhibiting,  either  to 
teachers  or  pupils,  any  book  or  article  offered  for  sale,  or 
taking  subscriptions  for  same.  No  list  of  pupils  shall 
be  given  by  principals  or  teachers  to  any  person  except 
on  the  order  of  the  superintendent.,, 

These  prohibitions  are  allied  to  those  which  elaborate 
the  theme  that  the  school  time  of  principals  and  teachers 
belongs  solely  to  school  work.  Various  regulations  of 
this  and  related  character  are : 

"No  principal  or  teacher  or  other  employee  shall  be 
allowed  to  sell  stationery,  pens,  pencils,  tablets  or  other 
articles  used  in  school  by  the  pupils,  except  in  behalf  of 
the  Board  when  authorized.  No  publication  for  adver- 
tising purposes  of  any  kind  shall  be  issued  or  distributed 
either  in  the  school  building  or  on  school  grounds/ '  — 
Minneapolis,  IX,  3. 

"  Teachers  shall  not  give  notice  of  entertainments  not 
connected  with  the  schools ;  nor  permit  any  of  the  time 
of  themselves  or  their  schools  to  be  occupied  by  book  or 
business  agents,  lecturers  or  exhibition  men."  Seattle, 
VIII,  16. 

"  Photographers  shall  not  be  permitted  to  take  photo- 
graphs of  the  school  for  the  purpose  of  selling  photographs 
to  the  school  children."  —  VI,  17. 

"No  voting  contest  shall  be  carried  on  in  connection 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PUBLIC  65 

with  the  public  schools,  nor  shall  any  teacher  be  allowed 
to  become  a  candidate  in  any  such  contest."  —  Minne- 
apolis, IX,  5. 

"  Teachers  shall  remain  in  their  own  rooms  and  devote 
their  energies  to  the  discharge  of  their  duties.  Visiting 
each  others  rooms,  except  on  business  of  the  school  which 
cannot  be  postponed,  all  reading  and  writing  not  imme- 
diately connected  with  the  school,  and  all  work  not  tend- 
ing directly  to  the  advancement  of  the  pupils,  are  for- 
bidden." —  Seattle,  VIII,  2. 

Minneapolis  provides  that  "No  teacher  or  principal, 
in  or  out  of  school,  shall  receive  presents  from  pupils  or 
the  immediate  friends  of  pupils,  nor  shall  any  teacher 
make  presents  to  any  pupil,  principal,  or  other  school 
official."  —  IX,  6.  Portland,  Ore.,  speaks  more  cau- 
tiously: "Teachers,  as  such  [sic],  shall  not  accept  any 
present  from  pupils  under  their  immediate  supervision 
nor  any  compensation  for  any  instruction  given  to  pupils 
enrolled  in  their  respective  rooms."  —  Art.  X. 

Self-seekers.  Too  much  of  a  principal's  time  is 
spent  in  merely  denying  the  requests  of  persons 
who  seek  to  use  the  public  schools  for  private  ends. 
In  many  cases  the  purpose  is  so  cleverly  veiled  that 
the  principal  may  for  the  moment  be  deceived. 
For  instance,  the  courteous  actor  who  offers  "  at 
no  expense  whatever  "  to  produce  scenes  from  the 
Shakespearean  play  studied  by  the  pupils  in  one  of 


66   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

the  grades.  Certainly  here  is  a  philanthropic  soul, 
a  devoted  worker  in  the  cause  of  public  education, 
who  would  thus  relieve  the  tedium  of  the  school 
most  pleasantly,  and  all  "  at  no  expense  whatever." 
But  in  another  five  minutes  it  develops  that  the 
"  consideration "  is  that  printed  programs  shall 
be  distributed  to  the  pupils,  and  behold !  on  their 
reverse  side  —  or  is  it,  after  all,  the  obverse  side 
—  the  advertisement  of  a  private  school  bidding 
for  pupils. 

Nice  questions  arise  in  some  situations  as  to 
the  propriety  of  complying  with  requests  of  visitors. 
For  example,  a  lawyer  demands  to  know  the  address 
of  a  certain  pupil  in  order  that  he  may  further  a 
client's  interest  in  some  court  action.  He  may 
represent  that  it  will  be  greatly  to  the  advantage  of 
the  pupil  himself  if  the  information  be  provided. 
The  principal  will  be  following  a  safe  and  wise 
procedure  if  he  declines  to  deliver  such  information 
except  upon  court  order  in  due  form,  or  upon  the 
formal  demand  of  a  departmental  superior. 

"  Influence."  Visitors  also  to  be  considered  are 
those  who,  assuming  to  exercise  some  political  or 
social  influence,  seek  some  special  privilege  which 
they  know  could  not  be  accorded  them  on  the 


THE   PRINCIPAL  AND   THE   PUBLIC  67 

intrinsic  merits  of  the  case.  Such  a  one  is  the 
gentleman  who  presents  his  card  indicating  that 
he  is  Chairman  of  Something,  or  Second  Assistant 
Secretary  to  Somebody,  and  who  has  just  "  stepped 
in  to  settle  that  little  matter  of  the  suspension  of 
my  friend's  boy."  The  direct  and  probably  the 
best  method  of  disposing  of  the  interloper  is  to 
refuse  positively  to  treat  with  him  on  any  matters 
which  are  outside  his  legitimate  province.  If  the 
gentleman  is  jovially  inclined,  however,  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  perhaps  a  sufficiently  logical  pro- 
cedure, and  one  which  will  show  him  the  absurdity 
of  his  position,  is  to  take  him  at  his  word,  accept 
his  guarantee  that  the  boy  in  question  will  behave 
in  the  future,  and  then  to  keep  him,  instead  of  the 
boy's  father,  who  has  surrendered  his  control  of 
his  own  affairs,  posted  as  to  the  boy's  conduct. 

If  the  principal  bears  in  mind  that  he  is  in  the 
high  service  of  the  pupils  of  his  school,  but  of  all 
his  pupils  equally,  the  problems  relating  to  the 
troublesome  visitor,  like  many  others,  pretty  clearly 
indicate  their  own  solution. 

Summary.  The  principal  ought  to  enlist  the 
cooperation  of  the  parents  of  his  pupils.  He  can 
do  this  without  surrendering  in  any  degree  the  inde- 


68       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

pendence  which  his  official  responsibility  makes  it 
necessary  for  him  to  maintain.  He  establishes  the 
right  relationship  with  parents  informally  in  his 
day-by-day  intercourse  with  individuals  and  formally 
by  means  of  parents'  meetings  and  parents'  associa- 
tions. He  must  deal  firmly  but  courteously  with 
all  those  who  attempt  to  secure  from  the  school 
some  consideration  to  which  they  are  not  entitled. 
The  disputatious  parent  must  meet  dignified  and 
gracious  decision  both  in  the  written  communica- 
tion and  in  the  interview.  All  visitors  should 
deal  directly  with  the  principal,  and  teachers  should 
be  trained  to  aid  in  enforcing  this  rule.  The  prin- 
cipal must  not  be  diverted  from  his  service  to 
pupils  to  serve  private  interests,  however  subtly 
they  may  be  urged  upon  him. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   PRINCIPAL   AND   THE   AUTHORITIES 

Official  allegiance.  "  Obedience  alone  gives  the 
right  to  command/ '  says  Emerson.  In  proportion 
as  the  principal  accords  respect,  courtesy,  and 
obedience  to  those  in  positions  of  official  superiority 
will  he  command  the  respect,  courtesy,  and  obe- 
dience of  his  official  subordinates.  No  principal 
or  teacher  is  expected  to  surrender  his  professional 
opinions  for  his  monthly  stipend;  the  exploitation 
of  those  opinions,  however,  is,  as  we  have  already 
noted,  not  a  contractual  privilege,  but  a  general 
and  extracontractual  duty.  As  a  citizen  he  has 
a  citizen's  right  to  be  heard  in  the  discussion  of 
general  educational  policy.  As  a  lecturer  and  as  a 
writer  he  has  freedom  of  speech  and  of  press.  But 
as  the  principal  of  a  certain  school  in  a  certain 
school  system  he  owes  official  allegiance  to  the 
legally  constituted  authorities  of  that  system,  how- 
ever much  their  views  may  differ  from  his  own. 

69 


70       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

The  ultimate  source  of  authority  is,  of  course, 
"  the  people,"  but  this  authority  is  exercised  through 
organized  government  by  way  of  the  State  to  the 
municipality  and  thence  to  the  school  board.  This 
last  transfer  is  made  by  a  variety  of  methods  in  the 
selection  of  board  members :  directly,  by  popular 
vote ;  or  indirectly,  by  appointment  by  the  mayor 
or  by  some  other  official  or  elected  body.  What- 
ever the  method  of  selection,  the  personnel  of  the 
school  board  indicates  to  a  large  degree  the  public 
estimate  of  its  schools  and  the  public  purpose  in 
regard  to  education. 

Three  authorities.  The  function  of  the  school 
board  is  practically  limited  to  legislation.  To 
secure  the  execution  of  its  legislative  acts  a  further 
transfer  of  authority  is  made  to  administrative 
officers.  In  most  cities  the  duties  of  administration 
are  separated  into  two  departments,  one  managing 
the  business  affairs  and  the  other  supervising  instruc- 
tion. Thus  the  principal  is  brought  into  relation, 
varying  in  directness,  with  three  classes  of  author- 
ities: the  board  members,  the  business  executives, 
and  the  supervisors  of  instruction. 

i.  The  school  board.  The  direct  contractual 
relation   of  the  principal  to  his   school  board   is 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  AUTHORITIES       71 

usually  slight,  orders  emanating  therefrom  coming 
to  him  by  way  of  the  executive  offices.1  Neverthe- 
less, no  principal  should  be  ignorant  of  the  personnel 
of  the  board  or  unacquainted  with  at  least  a  few  of 
its  members.  Whatever  relation  he  may  be  fortunate 
enough  to  sustain  with  individual  members,  it 
should  at  least  be  reciprocal  in  its  character ;  in  the 
highest  sense  he  should  give  and  take.  His  general 
duty  to  the  State  justifies  his  influencing  such  mem- 
bers in  broad  matters  of  educational  policy,  and 
that  influence  will  be  important  and  valuable  in 
proportion  as  his  specific  administration  of  his 
school  inspires  confidence  in  his  professional  judg- 
ment. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  important 
that  the  principal  himself  shall  profit  from  the 
relation.  Board  members  almost  invariably  are 
laymen,  as  distinguished  from  school  men,  and 
represent  the  lay  view  of  the  schools.2  The  prin- 
cipal should  evaluate  the  intelligence,  integrity,  and 
sincerity  of  each  board  member  whom  he  knows, 
and  thus  intelligently  equate  his  own  views  and 
those  of  the  "  spokesman  of  the  people."     His  own 

1  On  the  relation  of  the  teacher  to  the  school  board  and  of  the 
school  board  to  the  State,  see  author's  The  Status  of  the  Teacher. 

2  Professor  Chancellor  discusses  very  fully  the  personnel  of 
school  boards  in  Our  Schools,  p.  12  et  seq.     > 


72        THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

opinions  are  usually  much  in  need  of  just  such 
tempering  as  comes  by  blending  them  with  the 
convictions  of  common-sensed,  practical,  everyday 
men  of  affairs,  and  more  than  one  such  man  is 
usually  to  be  found  in  every  board  of  education. 
When  based  on  mutual  respect,  the  friendship  of 
board  member  and  school  man  cannot  fail  to  result 
favorably  to  the  State  and  to  the  particular  schools 
in  which  both  are  interested. 

2.  The  business  executives.  Separation  of  the 
duties  of  administration  into  two  departments 
concerning  respectively  the  general  and  the  pro- 
fessional business,  together  with  concentration  of 
authority  and  responsibility  in  a  single  head  for 
each  department,  has  been  effected  in  a  number  of 
cities.  In  general,  the  business  side  of  the  work 
brings  the  principal  into  contact  with  the  heads  of 
various  bureaus  —  supplies,  buildings,  care  of  build- 
ings, etc.  —  and  their  subordinates.  They  rep- 
resent the  department  as  concerned  with  its  material 
needs,  and  frequently  magnify  that  phase  of  the 
work.  Rather,  it  seems  that  they  occasionally 
suffer  from  mental  lippitude  which  makes  the  motto 
"  The  schools  exist  for  the  pupils "  read  "  The 
pupils  exist  for  the  schools." 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  AUTHORITIES       73 

It  is  but  natural  that  people  dealing  with  supplies 
instead  of  with  pupils  sometimes  seem  to  feel  that 
pupils  should  adapt  themselves  to  supplies,  and 
that  the  building  bureau  should  expect  pupils  to 
grow  to  fit  buildings ;  just  as  other  elements  of  the 
"  system  "  sometimes  err  by  creating  the  impres- 
sion that  the  schools  exist  for  them, — for  the  janitors, 
or  for  the  teachers,  or  for  the  principals,  or  for  the 
superintendents.  When  in  the  material  depart- 
ments there  is  this  tendency  to  "  put  the  cart  be- 
fore the  horse/ '  it  is  the  duty  of  the  principal  to 
keep  the  true  interests  of  the  pupils  before  the 
official  eye.  Even  if  there  be  no  specific  rule  to 
that  effect,  the  principal  will  be  following  logical 
procedure  if  he  conserves  these  interests  of  his 
pupils  through  his  "  instructional "  superiors. 
There  are  advantages  in  presenting  the  claims  of 
the  school  in  the  matter  of  equipment  and  supplies 
to  the  superintendent,  and  through  him  reaching  the 
proper  departments,  rather  than  in  dealing  with  them 
directly.  If,  for  example,  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
needed  supplies  has  not  been  delivered,  it  is  logical 
for  the  principal  to  notify  his  superintendent  that 
he  is  unable  to  comply  properly  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  course  of  study. 


74       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

3.  The  superintendent.  The  one  official  of  the 
school  system  with  whom  the  principal  has  the 
most  direct  and  most  frequent  relations  is  his  pro- 
fessional superintendent,  who,  in  the  language  of 
Professor  Chancellor,  "  is  the  representative  of  the 
schools,  their  accredited  ambassador  to  the  public, 
.  .  .  the  central  officer  of  the  school  system.' '  * 
In  the  large  systems  this  relationship  is  complicated 
by  the  existence  of  assistant  superintendents.2 
Only  by  a  proper  balance  of  influence  between  the 
superintendent  and  the  principal  can  the  best 
results  accrue.  Presumably  the  principal  has  the 
grasp  of  local  needs  and  detailed  insight  into  the 
many  corners  of  his  school,  while  the  superintendent 
has  a  clearer  view  of  the  broad  needs  of  the  system 
and  an  intelligent  oversight  of  the  many  schools 
which,  coordinated  one  with  another,  make  up  the 
system.  Both  viewpoints  and  forms  of  supervision 
contribute  proportionately  to  the  welfare  of  the 
pupils,  and  both  are  essential. 

The  relation  between  superintendent  and  prin- 

1  Our  Schools,  p.  133. 

2  Known  sometimes  as  associate,  deputy,  or  district  superin- 
tendents. New  York  has  thirty-four;  Philadelphia,  sixteen; 
Chicago,  thirteen ;  Cleveland,  six ;  St.  Louis,  four ;  San  Francisco, 
five ;  Seattle,  three ;  etc. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  AUTHORITIES       75 

cipal  of  necessity  implies  courteous  consideration  on 
both  sides.  The  stronger  the  superintendent  the 
larger  the  problems  with  which  he  concerns  himself, 
and  in  their  solution  he  is  entitled  to  the  earnest 
cooperation  of  all  his  subordinates.  As  the  prin- 
cipals come  into  closer  touch  with  the  superin- 
tendent's problems  than  do  the  class  teachers,  it  is 
from  them  that  the  superintendent  may  expect  the 
most  sympathetic  assistance  and  loyalty.  The 
principal  owes  his  allegiance  to  his  superintendent, 
and  will  consistently  render  it  in  full. 

The  premise  is,  however,  that  the  superintendent 
by  nature  and  training  so  regards  his  office  that  for 
him  supervision  on  any  petty  basis  is  impossible. 
His  very  largeness  of  attitude  and  action  may  lead 
him  into  minor  errors  of  form  and  judgment,  but 
his  mental  breadth  will  make  these  thoroughly 
forgivable,  and  in  no  way  impair  the  devotion  and 
loyalty  of  his  subordinates.  But  if  the  superin- 
tendent is  one  who  constantly  violates  the  canons 
of  supervision,  then  the  position  of  the  principal 
is  indeed  difficult,  for  loyalty  can  be  founded  only 
upon  respect  for  official  ability  and  personal  char- 
acter. Hence  there  are  two  sides  to  the  subject  of 
loyalty ;  if  a  superintendent  is  disloyal  to  his  prin- 


76        THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

cipals,  he  can  scarcely  complain  if  he  forfeits  their 
loyalty  to  him. 

Three  principles  of  supervision.  It  would  be 
more  convenient  to  assume  that  no  superintendent 
ever  strains  the  allegiance  of  his  principals;  but 
the  facts  do  not  support  this  assumption,  and,  as  we 
are  considering  practical  school  administration,  we 
cannot  escape  the  subject.  The  situation  fortu- 
nately is  exceptional  in  its  occurrence,  but  when  it 
arises  the  principal  confronts  a  puzzling  but  vital 
problem,  and  it  is  from  the  standpoint  of  his  office 
that  we  must  review  the  conditions.  There  are 
three  chief  principles  of  good  supervision,  valid  for 
superintendent  and  principal  alike,  which  a  careless 
superintendent  may  violate. 

i.  Avoid  unnecessarily  detailed  supervision.  The 
superintendent  should  not  exercise  unnecessarily 
detailed  supervision.  If  he  does,  it  usually  implies 
that  supervision  of  large  problems  is  beyond  his 
ability.  If  he  is  incapable  of  handling  such  matters 
as  securing  better  school  accommodations,  raising 
the  qualifications  of  teachers,  attracting  public 
opinion  to  the  support  of  the  schools,  attacking 
some  of  the  perplexing  modern  educational  problems, 
then  he  must   fill  in   his   time  showing  principals 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  AUTHORITIES       77 

and  teachers  where  to  place  the  decimal  point  in 
a  multiplication  example.  "  The  superintendent 
should  have  a  large  supervision  over  methods  and 
over  teaching,  but  he  should  be  generous  and 
liberal  enough  to  leave  all  principals  great  freedom 
in  working  out  their  own  problems.,,  x  "  The  most 
current  conception  of  an  efficient  supervisor  or 
superintendent  is  one  who  claims  freedom  for  him- 
self and  grants  it  to  others."  2 

2.  Respect  administrative  headship.  The  super- 
intendent should  respect  the  administrative  head- 
ship of  the  principal.  In  many  cities  this  admin- 
istrative headship  is  specifically  guaranteed  by 
law.  The  principle  is  very  clearly  stated  by  the 
Boston  School  Committee  in  its  annual  report  for 
1906  (p.  20) :  "  The  principals  as  the  responsible 
administrative  heads  of  their  respective  schools  or 
districts  are  charged  with  the  organization  thereof, 
and  the  supervision  and  direction  of  their  subordi- 
nates and  pupils,  and  the  general  maintenance  of 
order  and  discipline.  Thus,  in  the  administration 
of  the  school  system,  the  teachers  are  responsible 
to  the  principals,   the  principals  to  the  assistant 

1  Earl  Barnes,  Report  of  Committee  of  Fifteen,  p.  202. 

2  Samuel  T.  Dutton,  School  Management,  p.  13. 


78        THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY   SCHOOL 

superintendents,  the  assistant  superintendents  to 
the  superintendent,  and  finally,  the  superintendent 
to  the  board ;  and  this  principle  of  direct  account- 
ability on  the  part  of  subordinates  to  superiors 
exists  throughout  the  entire  code."  ! 

A  university  president  of  large  experience  tells 
us  that  "...  in  dealing  with  the  principal  the 
superintendent  should  make  his  power  just  as  little 
felt  as  possible.  The  consciousness  of  the  principal 
as  responsible  head  of  the  school  should  not  be 
disturbed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  supreme  power 
of  the  superintendent  need  not  be  abandoned."2 

1  New  York:  "Principals  of  schools  are  the  responsible  ad- 
ministrative heads  of  their  respective  schools.  .  .  ."  —  43,  1. 

Indianapolis:  "Principals  shall  be  held  responsible  for  the 
general  management  of  their  several  schools."  —  XV,  1. 

A  type  of  succinct  provision  covering  practically  the  entire 
duty  of  the  principal  is  that  of  New  Haven :  "Principals  shall  be 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  Superintendent  and  his 
assistants.  They  shall  be  responsible  for  the  general  management, 
discipline  and  supervision  of  their  schools.  They  shall  see  that 
the  prescribed  course  of  study  is  followed  and  that  the  rules  and 
regulations  of  the  Board,  and  all  directions  issued  by  the  Super- 
intendent, assistant  superintendents  and  supervisors  are  enforced. 
They  shall  direct  and  supervise  the  work  of  teachers,  clerks  and 
janitors.  They  shall  have  charge  of  their  buildings  and  grounds 
and  of  all  books,  supplies,  furniture  and  apparatus  assigned  to 
their  schools."  — 183. 

2  J.  G.  Schurman,  Report  of  Committee  of  Fifteen,  p.  222. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  AUTHORITIES       79 

Translated  into  even  more  practical  terms,  this 
means  that  "  the  superintendent  should  supervise 
the  principals,  and  the  principals  should  supervise 
their  own  schools."  ! 

In  the  practical  application  of  this  principle,  the 
ultimate  authority  of  the  superintendent  is  never 
called  into  question;  it  is  merely  a  matter  of 
administrative  method.  The  principle  of  direct 
administration  should  be  strictly  adhered  to  by  the 
superintendent;  and  strict  adherence  should  be 
expected  by  the  principal,  not  because  of  any  per- 
sonal feeling  as  to  the  importance  of  the  principal's 
office,  but  solely  because  it  is  a  valid  principle, 
compliance  with  which  conserves  the  best  interests 
of  the  pupils.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  defend  the 
principle  or  even  to  illustrate  it.  Pupils  should 
have  consistent  treatment  from  teachers;  anything 
else  is  wasteful.  It  follows  that  teachers  should 
receive  orders  only  that  are  definite,  consistent,  and 
in  accord  with  all  correlated  details.  It  is  more 
probable  that  they  will  be  such  if  they  come  through 
the  principal  than  if  the  superintendent  deals 
directly  with  the  teachers. 

3.   Do  not  render  ex  parte  judgments.    The  super- 
1  Colonel  F.  W.  Parker,  Report  of  Committee  of  Fifteen,  p.  219. 


80        THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

intendent  should  never  render  ex  parte  judgments. 
It  is  inevitable  that  complaints  be  made  concerning 
principals.  The  principal  deals  directly  or  in- 
directly with  hundreds  or  with  thousands  of  people, 
and  no  executive,  however  competent,  can  please 
everyone.  Indeed,  there  are  many  times  when  it 
would  be  maladministration  for  him  to  please.  It 
must  be  remembered,  too,  that  there  is  a  difference 
between  a  complaint  and  a  conviction.  A  super- 
intendent cannot  justly  condemn  a  principal  merely 
because  complaints  are  made  of  him.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  the  superintendent's  duty  to  condemn 
the  principal  if  investigated  complaints  convict 
him  of  wrongdoing. 

If  a  superintendent  considers  a  complaint  at  all, 
he  should  do  so  seriously,  and  investigate  it  im- 
partially. For  instance,  a  teacher  should  always 
have  the  right  of  appeal  l  from  the  decisions  of  the 

1  The  San  Francisco  method  is  so  admirable  that  it  is  given  here 
in  full: 

"Any  teacher,  or  other  employee  of  the  school  department,  act- 
ing under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  principal,  shall  have  the  right  to  report 
in  writing  above  his  or  her  signature,  in  an  unsealed  communication 
addressed  to  the  Board  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  principal 
for  transmission  to  the  latter,  any  and  all  violations  of  the  Rules 
of  the  Board  of  which  he  or  she  may  be  cognizant ;  in  the  same 
manner,  to  request  from  the  Board  an  instruction  or  ruling  for  his 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  AUTHORITIES       81 

principal ;  but  this  does  not  mean  that  the  superin- 
tendent will  gossip  with  a  teacher  about  her  prin- 
cipal, sympathize  with  her  in  her  criticism  of  him, 
or  give  an  offhand  verdict  against  him.  The  prin- 
cipal, in  this  as  in  all  cases,  should  be  given  due 
notice  of  the  complaint  and  an  opportunity  to  be 
heard.  Only  after  all  the  evidence  is  in  should  the 
superintendent  render  any  decision. 

Principal's  procedure  in  case  of  improper  super- 
vision.    It  is  in  one  or  more  of  these  three  directions 

or  her  guidance,  in  any  matter  of  consequence  concerning  the 
discipline  or  welfare  of  the  school  department,  not  specifically 
provided  for  in  the  rules  of  the  Board. 

"It  shall  be  the  duty  of  principals  to  acquaint  themselves  with 
the  contents  of  all  such  unsealed  communications  addressed  to  the 
Board,  which  they  may  receive,  indorsing  same  with  the  word 
'forwarded,'  and  transmit  the  same  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Board 
within  twenty-four  hours  from  the  time  of  receipt. 

"  Complaints,  reports  or  requests  for  instruction  coming  in  this 
way  to  the  Board  of  Education,  will  be  dealt  with  on  their  merits, 
to  the  end  that  justice,  harmony  and  good  discipline  may  prevail 
throughout  the  school  department,  but  in  no  instance  shall  the 
Board  fail  to  condemn,  censure,  or  subject  to  its  disciplinary 
action,  the  maker  of  any  false,  frivolous,  or  malicious  charge  or 
allegation  affecting  employees  of  the  school  department  or  others." 
—  148. 

Superintendent  Roncovieri  states  that  they  "feel  that  it  is  a 
good  rule,  although  not  used  extensively,  for  the  reason  that  it 
gives  every  teacher  an  opportunity  to  have  her  say." 


82       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

that  a  superintendent  is  most  liable  to  violate  the 
rules  of  supervision.  The  occasional  slip,  unim- 
portant and  clearly  unintentional,  the  principal  is 
under  no  obligation  to  recognize  or  resent ;  but  where 
the  violations  are  made  continually,  the  principal, 
for  the  sake  of  his  school,  cannot  afford  to  overlook 
them.1 

In  a  case  of  this  sort  the  principal's  duty  is  to 
present  his  view  of  the  matter  first  of  all  to  the 
superintendent  himself.  If  it  concerns  unneces- 
sarily detailed  supervision,  he  will  present  the 
academic  argument  against  it,  reenforced  by  spe- 
cific instances  of  such  supervision  having  impaired 
the  work  of  his  school  and  the  progress  of  the  pupils. 
If  it  concerns  failure  to  recognize  the  administrative 
headship  of  the  principal,  he  will  show  that  such 
procedure  is  wasteful,  and  may  cite,  as  an  analogy, 
the  discipline  in  well-ordered  organizations  other 
than  school  systems,  and  his  own  attitude  toward 
his  teachers  (see  p.  102).     If  it  concerns  the  expres- 

1 1  do  not  consider  the  extreme  case,  happily  rare  but  unfor- 
tunately existent,  where  a  superintendent,  or  anyone  else  in 
authority,  brings  personal  animus  into  his  dealings  with  a  subor- 
dinate. Such  a  condition,  like  any  other  crisis  in  the  life  of  an 
individual,  simply  throws  him  back  upon  his  fundamental  re- 
sources of  personal  and  private  philosophy. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  AUTHORITIES       83 

sion  of  ex  parte  judgments,  he  will  present  his 
appeal  for  justice  and  fair  play  and  for  judicial  pro- 
cedure in  the  investigation  of  complaints. 

If  the  principal  finds  that  the  superintendent  per- 
sists in  ignoring  his  presentment,  it  is  clearly  his  duty 
to  appeal  to  the  next  higher  authority,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, by  virtue  of  his  general  duty,  to  public  opinion. 
He  must  be  courteous,  dignified,  and  dispassionate 
in  his  procedure.  He  will  be  guided  by  certain 
general  considerations;  he  will  take  into  account 
local  conditions;  he  will  balance  his  duty  to  con- 
serve the  equilibrium  of  his  school,  which  would 
lead  him  to  postpone  action  until  the  strain  ap- 
proaches the  breaking  point,  against  his  duty  to 
conserve  the  integrity  of  his  school,  which  demands 
administration  along  lines  of  rational  policy;  he 
will  stand  upon  the  ground  that  "  the  right  of 
appeal  is  an  essential  feature  of  democracy " ; l 
he  will  subordinate  personal  considerations, — such  as 
his  natural  and  legitimate  ambition  to  win  favor  from 
his  superiors, — to  the  conscientious  performance  of 
his  duty  toward  his  pupils ;  and  he  will  profit  by 

1  Seattle  provides  "The  right  of  appeal  to  the  Board  of  Directors 
shall  in  no  case  be  denied  to  pupil,  principal,  teacher,  or  janitor.'7 
—  XIV,  2. 


84       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

the  wrong  attitude  of  his  superior  by  reexamining 
himself  to  see  that  he,  in  turn,  is  maintaining  the 
proper  attitude  toward  his  subordinates.1 

Two  methods  of  interpreting  orders.  The  prin- 
cipal, charged  with  carrying  out  the  orders  of  his 
superior  officers,  finds  two  divergent  methods  of 
interpretation  and  action  open  to  him:  he  may 
be  either  a  strict  constructionist  or  a  loose  con- 
structionist. The  principal  should  adopt  a  con- 
sistent policy  along  one  line  or  the  other.  If  he  is 
a  strict  constructionist,  he  will  endeavor  to  obey 
to  the  letter  every  rule  and  every  instruction  from 
higher  authority;  if  a  loose  constructionist,  he 
will  justify  exercising  his  own  judgment  on  the 
ground  of  the  public  interest.  Following  either 
course,  he  is  likely  to  encounter  trouble.  In  the 
one  case,  there  will  come  a  time  when  his  obedience 
displeases  his  superior  and  he  is  accused  of  error 
in  judgment  in  spite  of  his  technical  righteousness ; 
in  the  other  case,  he  will  be  told  that  no  exercise  of 
his  own  judgment  can  condone  official  disobedience. 
The  principal's  predicament  is  somewhat  analogous 
to  that  of  the  locomotive  engineer  under  orders  to 

1  Cf.  the  principal's  attitude  toward  his  own  mistakes  (p.  27) 
and  his  attitude  toward  teachers  (p.  102), 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  AUTHORITIES       85 

obey  a  hundred  rules  and  regulations,  compliance 
with  which  would  make  impossible  his  maintaining 
the  schedule  provided  for  his  train :  if  he  disobeys, 
he  courts  disaster  and  the  wreck  of  his  train;  if 
he  obeys,  his  train  is  always  late  and  he  loses  his 
position. 

One  superintendent  censured  his  principals  by  circular 
letter  because  many  of  them,  complying  with  the  rules 
of  the  school  board,  dismissed  their  pupils  at  noon  in  the 
midst  of  a  heavy  storm.  Part  of  his  letter  read  :  "Prin- 
cipals should  use  proper  discretion  in  the  interpretation 
of  this  [sic]  by-law.  The  noon  intermission  could  have 
been  held  from  12  :  30  until  1 :  30  p.m.,  or  even  from  1 
until  2  ;  and  the  afternoon  session  from  1 :  30  until  3  p.m., 
or  from  2  until  3  p.m.  The  children  should  not  have  been 
sent  into  the  street  during  a  violent  rainstorm.' '  With 
the  censure  omitted,  the  superintendent's  letter  could 
very  properly  have  served  as  a  ruling  to  cover  future 
contingency.  A  rainstorm  is  not  so  rare  an  event  as  to 
be  unforeseen  by  the  framers  of  by-laws  and  regulations.1 
There  was,  however,  no  authority  given  to  the  principal 

1  St.  Louis,  for  example:  "When  at  the  close  of  a  morning 
session  there  is  unexpectedly  a  violent  rain  or  storm,  and  there  is 
danger  that  the  health  of  the  children  might  suffer  if  they  were 
allowed  to  go  home,  the  Principal  may  hold  an  'Inclement  weather 
session.'  In  such  case  there  shall  be  a  noon  recess  of  twenty 
minutes,  and  the  school  shall  be  closed  at  half-past  two  o'clock 
p.m."  —  3,  XV. 


86       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

by  by-laws  to  change  the  session  periods ;  nor  did  the 
board,  subsequent  to  the  incident  cited,  amend  its  by- 
laws to  give  this  authority  to  the  principals.  In  the 
opinion  of  the  superintendent  the  principals  should  have 
exercised  discretion,  but  if  they  were  to  exercise  discre- 
tion in  the  interpretation  of  certain  other  by-laws  which 
are  printed  in  the  manual  in  type  of  the  same  size  as  the 
rule  as  to  sessions,  the  superintendent  would  doubtless 
censure  them  for  disobedience. 

The  safest  course.  The  principal  cannot  justify 
disobedience  of  instructions  because  his  own  opinion 
or  his  interpretation  of  public  opinion  does  not 
indorse  them.  The  responsibility  rests  upon  those 
who  issue  the  instructions,  and  the  principal  should 
permit  them  to  carry  the  burden  and  be  content  in 
shouldering  his  own  responsibilities,  which  are  by 
no  means  few  or  unimportant. 

The  principal's  safest  course  is  to  reduce  the 
problem  to  its  lowest  terms,  and  to  act  as  a  strict 
constructionist  except  under  the  stress  of  an  emer- 
gency. He  will  give  absolute  obedience  to  all  in- 
structions except  when,  in  an  emergency  evidently 
unforeseen  by  the  author  of  the  instructions,  it  would 
endanger  the  pupils.  This  reduces  the  principal's 
responsibility  to  the  justification  of  his  judgment  as 
to  what  constitutes  an  "  emergency." 


THE   PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  AUTHORITIES       87 

Summary.  The  principal's  relationship  with  in- 
dividual members  of  the  school  board  is  indirect 
and  informal ;  with  his  educational  superior  officer, 
the  superintendent,  it  is  direct  and  formal.  To  the 
superintendent  he  owes  allegiance,  and  he  is  justified 
in  expecting  a  corresponding  allegiance  from  the 
superintendent.  The  principal  must  be  recognized 
as  the  administrative  head  of  his  school,  he  must  be 
left  free  to  deal  with  details,  and  he  must  not  be 
prejudged  on  ex  parte  evidence.  In  his  school  the 
principal  is  the  executive  agent  of  the  authorities 
above  him.  Directions  to  teachers  and  pupils 
must  come  through  his  office.  He  must  obey  orders 
literally  except  in  the  case  of  unforeseen  emergencies. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS 

Securing  the  best  teachers.  No  principal,  how- 
ever competent,  can  make  a  success  of  his  school 
unless  he  has  a  teaching  force  able  to  give  his  ideals 
actual  classroom  expression.  It  is  essential  that 
he  gather  around  him  strong  teachers.  This  he 
can  do  only  by  being  strong  himself.  He  must 
establish  for  himself  such  a  reputation  for  profes- 
sional ability  and  for  just  and  considerate  treat- 
ment, that  teachers  will,  when  they  have  an  option, 
choose  to  work  in  the  school  over  which  he  presides. 
Under  whatever  system  of  appointment  the  princi- 
pal works,  whenever  added  effort  will  secure  a  better 
teacher,  he  must  make  the  effort. 

The  personal  equation  of  course  enters ;  each  principal 
will  have  his  own  teacher  ideal.  Teacher  A  may  be 
excellent  in  the  estimate  of  principal  X,  but  not  in  that 
of  principal  Y.  Teacher  B  may  be  as  good  a  teacher, 
and  yet  not  have  the  qualifications  most  esteemed  by 
principal  X,  though  she  is  entirely  satisfactory  to  prin- 
cipal F.    It  is  clear  that  X  should  get  A  into  his  school, 

88 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS  89 

and  Y  should  get  B ;  yet  frequently  the  reverse  happens, 
by  reason  of  the  system  of  appointment  or  the  difficulty 
of  effecting  transfers,  or  because  of  the  neglect  or  indif- 
ference of  the  principals  concerned. 

The  ideal  teacher.  Even  under  the  best  of  con- 
ditions, the  principal  seldom  finds  the  ideal  teacher ; 
yet  he  will,  more  or  less  consciously,  have  an  ideal  in 
mind,  against  which  he  measures  all  candidates. 

The  subject  of  the  ideal  teacher  has  been  a  favorite 
theme  with  the  pedagogical  essayists.  An  extended 
chapter  could  scarcely  encompass  their  mosaic  manipu- 
lations of  nouns  and  adjectives.  A  good  idea  of  what  is 
expected  of  a  teacher  may  be  gained  by  reading  the 
forms  provided  for  reports  on  teachers.  In  Richmond, 
for  example,  the  principal  reports  on  the  following  items : 

I.   Physical  Efficiency 

General  impression;    health;   voice;   energy; 
endurance. 
II.   Morals  —  Native  Efficiency 

Self-control ;    optimism ;    enthusiasm ;    tact ; 
industry;    earnestness;    adaptability  to  situa- 
tions of  administration ;   sense  of  humor ;  dis- 
cernment of  motive  in  administration. 
III.   Administrative  Efficiency 

Initiative;  promptness  in  response;  accuracy 
(in  school  detail,  in  reporting  incidents) ;  econ- 
omy (time,  property). 


QO       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

IV.    Dynamic  Efficiency 

Preparation  (intellectual  capacity,  academic  or 
foundational  education,  professional  training) ; 
professional  attitude  and  interest;  apprecia- 
tion of  intellectual,  social,  and  moral  values; 
instructional  skill  (attention  and  interest  of 
pupils,  vitality  of  instruction,  organization 
and  presentation  of  subject,  eliciting  pupil's 
contribution  and  participation,  effective  use  of 
materials  and  apparatus,  assignment  of  work, 
government  —  discipline). 
V.  Achieved  Efficiency 

Respect  of  pupils  and  community ;  leadership 
— stimulation  of  individuals  and  community; 
school  achievement. 

VI.    Social  Efficiency 

Visits  to  homes  of  pupils ;  assisted  in  clubs,  en- 
tertainments, games,  etc.,  intramural  interests ; 
extramural  interests  (cultural,  civic,  athletic, 
philanthropic,  religious). 

The  teacher  is  the  product  of  the  two  factors, 
native  ability  and  training.  Her  natural  equip- 
ment consists  of  her  physique,1  and  that  "  vague, 

1  "Any  person  appointed  teacher  or  principal  must  pass  a  physi- 
cal examination  given  by  the  Medical  Director  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  who  shall  certify  that  the  person  is  in  sound  physical 
health.  If  such  a  certificate  cannot  be  secured,  a  contract  shall  not 
be  issued." — Detroit,  III,  2.    This  is  the  practice  in  many  cities. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS  91 

indefinite,  spiritual  quality/ '  which  we  call  per- 
sonality ;  her  training  gives  her  formal  scholarship, 
general  culture,  and  the  more  special  equipment  of 
professional  and  technical  education.  But  it  is  only 
the  actual  test  in  the  classroom  that  can  demon- 
strate a  teacher's  value.  Even  an  experienced  super- 
visor, in  forming  his  opinion  of  a  teacher  when 
limited  to  a  conference  with  her,  will  occasionally 
err  in  his  judgment  as  to  her  actual  worth. 

Assigning  the  teacher.  Having  secured  the  near- 
est available  approach  to  the  ideal  teacher,  the 
principal  must  next  see  that  she  is  assigned  to  the 
work  for  which  she  is  best  fitted.  If  the  round  pegs 
are  in  the  square  holes  and  the  square  pegs  in  the 
round  holes,  any  organization  will  lack  stability 
and  effectiveness.  Accordingly,  the  principal  will 
study  to  place  each  teacher  where  she  can  give  the 
most  to  the  school  and  at  the  same  time  be  content 
and  cheerful  through  interest  in  her  work.  As  a 
rule,  the  inexperienced  teacher  should  be  given 
neither  the  first-year  pupils  nor  those  of  the  higher 
grades;  and  if  there  are  all-boys'  and  all-girls' 
classes  in  the  school,  she  should  be  given  a  class  of 
girls.  Yet  there  is  an  occasional  beginner  who  seems 
immediately  fitted  for  service  in  a  difficult  class  of 


92        THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

boys,  in  which  case  the  school  should  not  lose  her 
service  by  reason  of  any  rigid  rule  of  assignment. 
It  is  often  advantageous  to  consult  teachers  as  to 
their  preferences  and  their  estimates  of  their  own 
aptitudes.1 

Knowing  the  teachers.  It  is  important  for  the 
principal  to  know  his  teachers.  Kipling's  subaltern 
in  the  Brushwood  Boy  is  advised :  "  Get  to  know 
your  men,  young  un,  and  they'll  follow  you  any- 
where. That's  all  you  want  —  know  your  men." 
The  success  of  a  school  depends  in  large  measure 
upon  the  intimacy  established  between  the  principal 
and  his   teachers.     If  the  relation   is   merely   the 

1  San  Francisco  provides:  "(a)  At  the  close  or  at  the  beginning 
of  the  school  year,  principals  shall  classify  their  schools,  assigning 
teachers  to  the  class  for  which  they  consider  them  best  fitted, 
sending  reports  of  said  classification  within  two  weeks  thereafter 
to  the  Board  and  to  the  Superintendent.  Such  assignments  shall 
be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Board."  —  48. 

"Principals  shall  annually  so  assign  teachers  to  classrooms  that 
they  shall  alternate  in  the  occupancy  of  desirable  and  undesirable 
rooms,  avoiding  as  far  as  possible  changes  which  will  require 
moving  desks."  — 49. 

Portland,  Ore.,  provides  "Teachers  in  elementary  schools  shall 
be  elected  as  assistants  but  shall  not  be  assigned  to  grades  or 
classes.  Their  assignment  shall  be  left  to  the  city  superintendent 
of  schools,  who  is  hereby  instructed  to  assign  teachers  so  that 
pupils  may  remain  with  their  respective  teachers  an  entire  year 
wherever  practicable."  —  VII. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS  93 

formal  business  of  the  teacher  rendering  so  many 
hours'  service  and  the  principal  certifying  that  she 
has  not  shirked  her  work,  the  school  may  be  well 
run,  but  it  will  lack  that  finer  element  which  we  call 
atmosphere.  A  cordial  interest  shown  by  the 
principal  in  the  personal  and  professional  welfare 
of  his  teachers  —  a  personal  friendship  that  knows 
their  ambitions,  hopes,  and  limitations,  and  a 
professional  comradery  that  implies  a  sympathetic 
understanding  of  their  daily  problems  —  will  bring 
about  a  maximum  of  effective  result  with  a  minimum 
of  nerve  strain  for  all  concerned. 

Relation  with  teachers.  The  underlying  duty 
of  the  principal  toward  his  teachers  is  to  help  them 
serve  their  pupils;  in  proportion  as  he  impresses 
upon  them  his  ability  and  willingness  to  do  this,  he 
will  have  the  loyal  support  of  his  staff,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, his  school  will  be  recognized  as  doing 
much  for  its  pupils.  The  formal  assistance  which 
he  gives  to  teachers  will  be  considered  at  some 
length  later;  let  us  first  note  the  more  informal 
phase  of  the  relation  between  principal  and  teachers. 

"The  principal's  first  duty  is  to  his  teachers,  to  help 
them  grow  professionally.  ...  In  the  performance  of  this 
duty  he  is  subject  to  all  the  principles  of  method  to  which 


94       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

they  are  subject,  and  should  illustrate  them  continually 
in  his  contact  with  them.  For  that  reason,  he  cannot 
be  merely  a  judge  of  instruction,  an  inspector ;  for,  as 
such,  he  only  passes  upon  the  quality  of  a  teacher's  work, 
without  aiding  her  greatly  to  improve.  Nor  can  he  be 
a  dictator,  merely  giving  her  directions  about  what  to 
do ;  for  as  such  he  emphasizes  obedience  in  intellectual 
matters,  and  thus  puts  restraint  about  her,  while  it  is  his 
duty  to  make  her  feel  free.  He  is  prevented  from  assum- 
ing these  relations  to  his  teachers,  for  the  same  reasons 
that  they  are  prevented  from  assuming  them  toward 
their  pupils.  His  general  relation  to  his  teachers,  there- 
fore, is  that  of  an  adviser,  basing  his  advice  on  reason, 
and  granting  their  right  to  reject  it.  This  relationship 
is  especially  worthy  of  emphasis  in  a  great  system  of 
schools,  where  uniformity  in  matters  not  pertaining  to 
instruction  is  of  the  highest  importance."1 

The  new  teacher.     The  principal  should  have  a 

conference  with   the  newly   appointed   teacher   in 

which  he  outlines  the  ideals  for  the  school,  indicates 

what    her    contributions   may   be,    and    gives    her 

appropriate  advice  and  caution.     The  new  teacher 

for  some  time  will  need  and  will  welcome  detailed 

and  specific  practical  directions  for  her  classroom 

guidance.     As  she  grows  in  professional  skill  and 

1  Frank  M.  McMurry,  Report  on  School  Inquiry,  New  York, 
i9ii-i3,vol.  i,  p.  335. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS  95 

strength,  the  principal  will  less  and  less  restrict 
her,  and  more  and  more  urge  and  encourage  her  to 
express  herself  in  her  work.  The  result  will  be  that 
as  she  progresses  in  years  of  service  she  makes  a 
proportionate  advance  in  personal  growth  and 
culture.1  On  one  hand  he  will  commend  improve- 
ment in  her  work  whenever  he  can,  praise  rather  than 
censure,  and  by  an  example  of  cheerful  optimism 
guide  her  over  the  rough  places  of  her  day's  work. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  will  not  let  her  settle  into  a 
smug  conceit  that  she  has  "  finished  "  her  training 
and  may  spend  the  balance  of  her  career  running  in 
one  well-oiled  groove.  By  example  and  precept 
the  principal  will  encourage  his  colaborers  to  self- 
culture  ;  maintaining  an  up-to-date  teachers'  library, 
stirring  teachers  to  develop  outside  interests  that 
will  enlarge  their  horizon  and  broaden  their  sym- 
pathies, leading  them  to  recognize  the  need  of  out- 
door exercise,  encouraging  them  to  make  profitable 
friendships,  stimulating  them  to  independent  study 

1  "All  teachers  will  be  diligent  students  of  the  science  and  art 
of  education  through  the  use  of  the  pedagogical  as  well  as  other 
departments  of  the  public  library  and  the  standard  periodicals  of 
the  day.  All  opportunities  for  special  or  general  culture  which 
are  within  their  reach  and  means  should  be  employed  for  the 
furtherance  of  this  end."  —  Cleveland,  12, 


96       THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

and   thinking,   and   sending   them   to   visit  other 
schools. 

A  few  cities  are  advancing  toward  the  idea  of  a  sab- 
batical year.  New  York,  Detroit,  and  some  others,  grant 
a  leave  of  absence  not  exceeding  one  year,  but  without 
pay.  Rochester  makes  more  liberal  provision.  "Any 
teacher  or  principal  who  shall  have  served  the  city  of 
Rochester  for  seven  years,  may,  on  recommendation  of 
the  Superintendent  and  with  the  approval  of  the  Board 
of  Education,  be  granted  leave  of  absence  for  study  or 
travel,"  on  certain  conditions.  "Such  leave  shall  not 
be  granted  for  less  than  one  full  semester,  nor  shall  it 
exceed  one  year  in  duration.  It  shall  not  be  granted  more 
than  once  in  eight  consecutive  years."  "Salary  during 
such  leave  shall  be  one-half  the  applicant's  regular  salary, 
but  in  no  event  shall  it  exceed  one  thousand  dollars." 

A  few  cities  are  getting  the  benefits  of  exchange  of 
teachers.  Superintendent  Alderman,  of  Portland,  Ore., 
in  his  Annual  Report,  1916-17,  says,  "Our  plan  of  ex- 
change of  teachers  with  other  cities  was  carried  on  last 
year  with  highly  gratifying  results.  Last  year  we  had 
exchanges  with  school  systems  in  the  states  of  Massachu- 
setts, New  York  and  Ohio.  This  year  we  are  to  have  an 
exchange  with  Chicago,  the  first  city  of  its  size  to  recog- 
nize our  system  of  exchange." 

Visiting  schools.  Visitation  of  other  schools  by 
teachers    should   neither   be   neglected   nor    done 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS  97 

perfunctorily.    The  Board  of  Education  of  Roch- 
ester "  deems  it  the    professional   duty   of  every 
teacher  to  visit  other   schools."     A  teacher  may 
gain  by  seeing  better  work  than  she  herself  is  doing, 
getting  the  stimulus  to  do  better  work  herself ;   or, 
if  she  is  an  excellent  teacher  and  is  in  a  temporary 
despair  over  her  work,  she  may  regain  her  self-con- 
fidence  by   learning   that  other    teachers   likewise 
suffer.     In  either  case  she  should  visit  in  the  right 
spirit,  knowing  what  she  is  going  out  for,  getting  it 
if  she  can,  and  if  not,  getting  what  she  can.1 
1  Oakland  calls  for  a  report  in  the  following  form : 
Oakland  Public  Schools 
Teacher's  Professional  Visitation  Report 
Date        Teacher's  Signature         School  Grade  or  Subject 

Grades  or  classes  Names  of  teachers  Time  of 

visited  visited  Visits 


Suggestions  for  improvement  and  development  from  above 
visits. 

1 

2 

3 

etc. 

The  following  suggestions  as  to  visitation  are  offered  by  the 

Board  of  Superintendents,  New  York  City : 

Time  :  Mondays  and  Fridays  are  not  usually  the  best  days  for 
visiting.  The  first  fortnight  and  the  last  fortnight  of  a  term  are 
valueless  for  this  purpose,  as  is  the  day  preceding  or  following  a 
holiday. 


98   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Three  kinds  of  teacher.  The  principal  finds 
that  his  teachers  are  of  three  kinds,  —  those  who  do, 
those  who  don't,  and  those  who  neither  do  nor  don't. 
He  will  have  to  curb  the  first,  prod  the  second,  and 
labor  with  the  third. 

i.  The  painstaking  teacher.  Many  a  painstaking, 
successful   teacher   contracts   that    disease   which, 

Who  :  Inexperienced  teachers  should  first  visit  classes  taught 
by  excellent  teachers  in  their  own  school.  If  inexperienced 
teachers  are  sent  to  another  school,  it  is  advisable,  at  times,  to 
send  them  with  the  experienced  grade  leader.  Excellent  teachers 
are  frequently  stimulated  by  visits  to  other  schools. 

Attitude:  The  visiting  teacher  should  disturb  the  regular 
work  of  the  class  as  little  as  possible.  All  conferences  should  take 
place  during  intermissions,  or  after  school  hours.  There  should 
be  a  feeling  on  the  part  of  both  the  class  teacher  and  the  visitor 
that  the  object  of  visiting  is  self -improvement.  The  attitude 
should  be  that  of  the  student,  and  not  that  of  the  critic.  Visiting 
teachers  should  be  willing  to  observe  the  work  of  the  class  as  it  is 
being  pursued. 

Report  :  When  a  teacher  returns  from  a  visit,  an  oral  report 
should  be  made  to  the  principal.  If  anything  new  or  worth  while 
has  been  seen,  it  should  be  made  a  part  of  the  calendar  of  the  next 
teachers'  conference  in  that  school. 

What  to  Note  :  It  is  suggested  that  each  principal  devise  a 
form  that  will  instruct  and  guide  the  visiting  teacher  in  methods 
of  observation  or  inspection  of  work.  Such  instructions  may 
include  a  few  or  all  of  the  following : 

i.   Classes  and  subjects  observed. 

2.  Outline  of  lesson,  or  plan  of  presentation  and  development. 

3.  Was  the  work  observed  primarily  a  teaching,  drilling,  or 
testing  exercise? 

4.  What  were  the  good  points  in  the  manner,  methods,  and 
spirit  of  the  teacher  visited? 

5.  Cooperation  between  teacher  and  pupils. 

6.  What  good  books,  illustrative  material,  teaching  aids  and 
devices  did  you  notice? 

7.  Helpful  suggestions  for  work  in  your  own  class. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS  99 

for  lack  of  a  more  expressive  title,  I  must  call 
"  schoolitis."  In  her  conscientious  devotion  and 
zeal  she  is  eating,  drinking,  and  sleeping  "  school." 
She  takes  home  armfuls  of  spelling  papers,  composi- 
tions, and  other  written  material,  and  pores  over 
them  into  the  late  evening,  coming  to  school  the 
next  day  after  a  restless  night.  The  principal  must 
diagnose  such  a  case  promptly,  and  apply  the 
remedies  heroically.  The  teacher  must  be  trained 
to  stay  in  school  after  session  long  enough  to  finish 
properly  the  day's  work  and  to  prepare  for  the  work 
of  the  following  day.  No  papers  are  to  be  taken  out 
of  the  building.  When  the  teacher  locks  her  desk, 
she  must  lock  in  it  all  the  irritating  details  of  the 
school  day,  and  walk  out  into  the  open  air  with  a 
mind  free  from  anxiety  for  the  morrow.  She  must 
get  a  complete  change  of  atmosphere  during  the 
evening,  seeking  recreation  and  pleasure,  and  enjoy 
a  night's  wholesome  sleep.  Her  value  to  her  class 
the  next  day  will,  in  consequence,  be  far  in  excess 
of  what  it  would  have  been  had  she  corrected  five 
times  as  many  papers  at  the  expense  of  a  serious 
drain  on  her  vitality.1 

1  "Never  take  any  work  home  from  school !      What  cannot  be 
done  at  the  desk  should  be  hired  out.    The  money  will  be  more 


ioo     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

The  time  consumed  and  the  labor  involved  in  the 
teacher's  correction  of  pupils'  written  work  during  what 
should  be  her  recuperating  hours  are  not  the  only  counts 
against  the  practice.  Perhaps  the  most  serious  feature 
is  that  the  teacher  is  deliberately  reliving  the  events  of 
the  day.  Each  paper  she  takes  up,  each  blot,  each  crease, 
each  erasure,  is  likely  to  recall  an  incident  of  the  day's 
work  that  might  better  be  forgotten.  Once  is  usually  as 
many  times  as  any  particular  school  day  should  be  lived. 

2.  The  neglectful  teacher.  Occasionally  a  teacher 
is   willfully    or   carelessly  neglectful   of  her   work. 

profitably  spent  than  if  put  into  the  contribution  box  of  a  church 
or  the  strong  box  of  a  lyceum  lecturer.  .  .  .  Do  not  live  or  mix 
with  other  teachers.  .  .  .  Don't  talk  shop.  Of  all  shop-talk, 
school-shop  is  the  dullest  to  an  outsider. 

"A  teacher  ought  to  know  folks.  Books  will  not  do,  even  the 
best  of  them.  You  are  not  teaching  little  books  how  to  become 
nice  big  books,  but  young  humans  how  to  become  fine  men  and 
women."  —  Katherine  Kingsley  Crosby,  "  The  Teacher  and 
Herself  "  in  Educational  Review,  November,  1914. 

Superintendent  Carlos  M.  Cole,  of  Denver,  circularizes  his 
principals  as  follows:  "Extra  work  after  school  is  bad  for  the 
teacher  as  well  as  the  child.  The  teacher  cannot  be  in  good  con- 
dition for  the  following  day's  work  if  the  custom  of  keeping  school 
after  hours  is  persistently  maintained.  Teachers  should  give 
classes  the  very  best  within  their  power  during  the  school  hours, 
and  after  school  hours  should  be  content  to  leave  the  buildings 
within  an  hour  after  the  time  of  dismissal.  Teachers  owe  it  to  the 
children  to  be  in  good  physical  and  mental  condition.  Buoyancy 
of  spirit  and  happiness  mean  much  to  the  young,  and  such  a  con- 
dition obtains  only  when  teachers  are  not  overworked." 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        101 

Usually  her  neglect  is  due  to  a  lack  of  a  sense 
of  responsibility.  A  common  type  of  the  neg- 
lectful teacher  is  one  who  has  merely  stumbled 
into  the  vocation,  and,  consciously  or  unconsciously, 
regards  it  as  a  makeshift  or  means  of  temporary 
employment.  She  —  more  probably  it  is  he  —  may 
be  making  teaching  merely  a  source  of  income  while 
preparing  for  some  more  congenial  or  more  remu- 
nerative profession.  Or  her  first  interest  may  be  in 
the  social  life,  with  teaching  but  a  painfully  neces- 
sary incident  to  be  borne  as  lightly  as  possible  until 
matrimony  rescues.  Such  teachers  almost  always 
have  positive  native  qualities,  earnestness,  energy, 
determination,  cheerfulness,  and  the  like.  All  that 
is  necessary  is  to  bring  the  teacher  to  a  realizing 
sense  of  her  responsibilities  and  the  seriousness  of 
her  position.  Then  she  must  be  dealt  with  un- 
flinchingly. If  she  does  not  come  to  put  her  ener- 
gies into  the  right  direction  the  principal  must  move 
promptly  to  force  her  out.  Neglect  of  duty  is  a 
generally  recognized  index  of  inefficiency,  and  is  a 
form  of  incompetence  that  can  most  readily  be 
proven  when  a  formal  charge  is  made. 

3.    The    colorless    teacher.    The    teacher    who    is 
negatively  rather  than  positively  good  or  bad,  who 


^02#r.XH^'.MANApEMi:NT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

is  passive,  indifferent,  and  colorless,  is  a  serious 
problem.  Frequently,  circumstances  are  such  that 
she  cannot  be  classed  as  incompetent  and  dismissed 
on  this  charge ;  nor  can  she  be  regarded  as  a  positive 
and  profitable  force  in  the  school.  With  such  a 
teacher  the  principal  can  only  struggle  as  best  he 
may,  charging  her  to  "  profit  and  loss "  on  the 
school  ledger,  and  reconciling  himself,  if  necessary, 
by  remembering  that  "  the  poor  ye  have  always 
with  you." 

Principal's  attitude  toward  teachers.  By  way 
of  approach  to  the  more  formal  methods  of  assisting 
teachers,  let  us  consider  the  official  attitude  of  the 
principal  toward  them. 

Respect  for  the  teacher's  authority.  The  prin- 
cipal must  make  it  a  point  at  all  times  to  respect 
the  authority  of  the  teacher.  She  must  be  recog- 
nized, and  must  be  taught  to  recognize  herself,  as 
the  administrative  head  of  her  class,  just  as  the 
principal  is  the  acknowledged  administrative  head 
of  his  school.  Indeed,  the  principal  should  be,  if 
anything,  less  jealous  of  his  own  administrative 
authority  than  he  is  solicitous  to  respect  that  of 
the  class  teacher.  The  concrete  application  of  this 
principle  in  the  presence    of   pupils    does    much, 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        103 

through  the  creation  of  an  atmosphere,  to  further 
the  general  good  discipline  of  the  school. 

For  instance,  in  going  into  a  classroom  to  make  an  an- 
nouncement to  the  pupils,  the  principal  will  interrupt 
the  teacher  and  the  work  of  the  class  only  after  saying, 
"  Excuse  me,  Miss  Blank ;  I  wish  to  make  an  announce- 
ment to  the  class,"  or  using  some  similar  expression. 
When  he  wishes  to  send  a  pupil  on  an  errand,  he  will  ask 
permission  to  do  so  of  the  teacher  of  the  class,  and  pos- 
sibly leave  it  to  her  to  decide  which  pupil  is  to  be  selected. 
If  the  principal  wishes  to  know  whether  a  certain  boy  is 
in  a  certain  class,  he  will  not  bolt  into  the  room  with  the 
inquiry  addressed  to  the  class.  He  will  quietly  ask  Miss 
Blank  if  the  boy  is  there ;  if  he  is,  and  the  principal  wishes 
to  speak  to  him,  he  will  ask  Miss  Blank  to  call  the  boy 
to  the  front. 

Care  about  such  apparently  unimportant  matters  may 
seem  like  unnecessary  nicety,  but  it  is  care  which  yields 
much  in  results.  The  principal  sacrifices  none  of  his 
authority.  The  teacher  knows  well  enough  that  the 
principal  has  the  " right"  to  do  these  things  in  the  more 
direct  and  abrupt  way.  She  must  already  have  gained 
a  respect  for  him  through  his  demonstrated  ability ;  and 
these  little  courtesies  in  no  way  diminish  that  respect. 

The  large  man  does  not  need  to  advertise  his 
authority ;  it  is  only  the  small  man  who  is  constantly 
parading  his  power.    The  pupils  are  keen  to  note 


1 


104     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

that  the  teacher  has  an  authority  which  even  the 
principal  respects,  and  their  own  respect  for  that 
authority  is  thus  enlarged.  The  consistent  practice 
of  formal  courtesy  in  dealing  with  teachers  is  one 
means  by  which  the  principal  gives  notice  to  the 
pupils,  and  particularly  to  the  pupils  inclined  to  be 
unruly,  that  he  stands  constantly  ready  to  support 
the  teacher  in  maintaining  discipline. 

Not  only  will  the  principal  respect  the  teacher's 
authority  when  in  the  presence  of  pupils,  but  he  will 
further  recognize  her  individuality  in  all  his  official 
dealings  with  her.  At  conferences  he  will  defer  to 
her  judgment  and  carefully  weigh  her  contributions. 
He  will  encourage  her  to  express  herself  in  her  class- 
room methods  and  defend  her  own  ideas,  even  when 
they  are  at  variance  with  his. 

Nevertheless,  there  is  much  that  the  principal 
can  do  in  the  planning  of  teachers'  work,  in  the 
interest  of  both  teachers  and  pupils.  Carrying  out 
plans  involves  instructing  teachers,  and  this  subject 
demands  consideration. 

Instructing  teachers.  All  instructions  to  teachers 
should  be  definite  and  to  the  point.  The  fewer 
they  are,  the  more  likely  are  they  to  be  respected. 
They  should  not  be  hastily  issued,  but  should  be  the 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        105 

result  of  deliberation,  and  should  be  reasonable  and 
justifiable.  In  any  system  the  teacher  should  at  all 
times  have  the  right  of  appeal  from  the  decisions  of 
the  principal.  Good  teachers  will  never  appeal  from 
reasonable  orders.  If  an  order' is  likely  to  seem  in 
any  way  mysterious,  it  is  wise,  whenever  practicable, 
to  explain  the  reason  for  issuing  it.  The  right  of 
principals  to  issue  unexplained  orders  is  not  ques- 
tioned, but  teachers  appreciate  the  principal's 
taking  them  into  his  confidence,  and  respond  more 
heartily  to  directions  whose  justification  they 
thoroughly  understand. 

Orders  versus  suggestions.  Teachers  should  be 
trained  to  distinguish  between  orders  and  sugges- 
tions, and  the  principal's  statements  should  be  so 
phrased  as  to  show  clearly  which  they  are.  For 
example,  the  principal  may  order  teachers  to  report 
for  a  certain  duty  at  a  certain  time.  If  they  willfully 
fail  to  comply  with  this  direction,  they  are  guilty 
of  insubordination  and  may  be  treated  accordingly. 
He  may  suggest  that  teaching  a  certain  geography 
lesson  with  a  globe  is  better  than  teaching  it  with  a 
map.  If  a  teacher  fails  to  follow  this  suggestion, 
she  is  in  no  sense  insubordinate,  and,  provided  her 
preference  for  the  other  method  is  sincere,  she  should 


jo6     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

not  be  criticized  for  disregarding  the  principal's 
suggestion.  If  the  principal  should  conclude  that 
there  are  sufficient  reasons  why  his  method  ought 
to  be  followed,  then  he  may  prescribe  that  method 
and  direct  its  use,  which  would  completely  change 
the  character  of  the  action  of  any  teacher  who 
then  insisted  on  using  the  contrary  method. 

Written  instructions.  Instructions  may  be  writ- 
ten or  oral.  If  they  need  little  explanation,  or  if 
they  are  of  permanent  value  or  of  special  importance 
even  temporarily,  they  should  be  written,  and  their 
receipt  acknowledged  by  each  teacher.1  The  value 
of  such  receipt  is  that  the  principal  can  readily 

1  Instruction  sheets  should  never  be  circulated  by  means  of  a 
pupil-monitor  except  in  the  case  of  notices  which  are  to  be  read  by 
the  teachers  to  their  pupils.  It  is  well  to  caution  the  teachers 
generally  as  follows:  "Do  not  permit  pupils  to  see  notices  to 
teachers.  Do  not  take  them  into  your  confidence  as  to  any  of  the 
limitations  put  upon  school  officers  and  teachers." 

Miss  Kate  Van  Wagenen,  principal,  Public  School  53,  Man- 
hattan, New  York,  suggests  the  following  practice:  "When 
information  is  desired  from  each  class,  the  teacher  is  requested  to 
have  this  ready  by  a  certain  hour,  when  it  will  be  called  for.  There 
are  captains  on  each  floor  and  each  one  understands  that  when 
a  notice  for  information  appears  on  the  bulletin  boards,  she  is  to 
collect  at  the  hour  mentioned  and  transmit  promptly  to  the  office. 
If  the  information  is  not  ready,  the  captain  checks  up  the  teachers 
and  then  the  principal  gets  the  information  promptly  without 
sending  to  the  laggards  for  it." 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        107 

check  up  the  circulation  of  his  instruction  sheet, 
and  also  can  convince  the  forgetful  teacher  who 
has  failed  to  comply  with  a  particular  instruction 
that  the  fault  is  her  own.  The  circular  instructions 
should  be  kept  by  the  principal  for  some  time  for 
reference  and  retrospective  study.  Their  preserva- 
tion also  provides  against  the  rare  but  troublesome 
case  of  the  willfully  insubordinate  teacher  against 
whom  the  principal  may  have  to  prefer  charges,  in 
which  event  the  written  acknowledgment  of  the 
receipt  of  instructions  becomes  valuable  evidence. 

The  fundamental  code  of  instructions  may  profitably 
be  formulated  in  a  multigraphed  set  of  General  Regula- 
tions with  the  preamble,  "All  teachers  will  please  comply 
with  the  following  regulations :  —  "  and  listing  all  the 
important  rules  of  a  permanent  character  that  teachers 
are  to  follow,  such  as  those  applying  to  teachers'  absence, 
records,  visitation  of  other  schools,  correspondence  with 
parents,  classroom  visitors,  care  of  classroom,  of  equip- 
ment, and  of  books,  detention  of  pupils,  punishment  of 
pupils,  pupils  leaving  the  room,  etc.  Each  teacher,  upon 
beginning  service  in  the  school,  should  be  provided  with 
a  copy  of  the  General  Regulations.  An  effective  method 
of  calling  the  attention  of  a  teacher  to  her  violation  of 
one  of  the  rules  is  to  send  her  a  fresh  and  marked 
copy. 

Supplementary  instructions,  if  issued  in  uniform  size 


108  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

and  arrangement,  can  be  conveniently  kept  by  each 
teacher  in  a  loose-leaf  cover.1 

Oral  instructions.  Oral  instructions  are  given 
to  teachers  individually,  or  to  various  groups. 
The  teachers'  meeting  should  be  for  either  instruc- 
tion or  conference,  and  it  is  well  to  emphasize  the 
distinction.  When  it  is  for  the  giving  of  instructions 
only,  the  teachers  should  clearly  so  understand  it. 
The  principal  should  be  careful  in  giving  such 
instructions  not  to  wander,  and  yet  to  take  time 
enough  to  clear  up  any  difficulties. 

The  teachers'  conference.  As  for  the  conference, 
suggestions  to  the  principal  are : 

i.  Do  not  have  too  many  meetings.2  An  occasional, 
enthusiastic  conference  is  worth  more  than  several 
formal  meetings  coming  at  stated  and  frequent  intervals. 

1  New  Haven,  however,  provides  that  principals  "shall  main- 
tain, in  every  school  building,  in  a  place  convenient  of  access  for 
all  teachers  and  pupils,  a  school  bulletin  board  upon  which  shall 
be  placed  notices  and  information  which  are  of  general  importance 
to  the  school.  They  shall  not  allow  the  circulation  of  notices  of 
any  sort  from  room  to  room  or  from  teacher  to  teacher  through 
the  school,  nor  shall  they  allow  pupils  to  pass  from  room  to  room 
giving  notices,  exhibiting  articles  that  have  been  found  or  soliciting 
information  about  articles  lost.  All  information,  notices  and  in- 
quiries of  this  nature  shall  be  placed  upon  the  bulletin  board."  — 193. 

2  Many  cities  prescribe  the  number  of  meetings.  For  example, 
New  Orleans:    The  principal  "shall  hold  a  teachers'  meeting 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        109 

2.  Encourage  teachers  to  talk.  Emphasize  the 
thought  that  a  conference  is  not  a  monologue,  and  that 
all  are  invited  and  expected  to  contribute.  It  ought 
not  to  be  possible  for  a  teacher  to  leave  a  meeting  with 
the  remark,  justly  made,  "Another  hour  wasted." 

3.  Be  patient  with  the  diffident  teachers  or  those  of 
slower  understanding ;  get  their  viewpoint  and  sympa- 
thize with  their  limitations  and  their  endeavors. 

4.  Do  not  let  the  subject  get  away.  While  general 
discussion  is  to  be  encouraged,  it  must  be  kept  germane 
to  the  subject  in  hand. 

5.  Get  something  for  yourself.  It  must  be  accounted 
an  unsatisfactory  meeting  if  you  do  not  bring  from  it 
some  new  idea,  some  fresh  impulse,  or  some  happy  in- 
spiration, which  shall  in  time  react  upon  your  school. 

As  to  the  comparative  value  of  the  different-sized 
groups,  it  may  be  said  that  (1)  in  the  school  con- 
ference the  principal  will  exercise  his  larger  influence, 
establish  his  standards,  set  forth  his  ideals,  and 
create  his  atmosphere;  (2)  in  the  grade  or  group 
conference,  he  will  do  his  most  effective  detailed 

within  the  week  following  the  second  Friday  of  each  school  month, 
and  such  other  meetings  as  he  may  deem  to  be  of  advantage  to  the 
efficiency  and  discipline  of  his  school."  —  XII,  17. 

Cleveland,  on  its  "Teacher's  Personal  Report,"  has  the  items 
"Number  Times  Absent  from  Teachers'  Meetings,"  and  "Number 
Times  Tardy  at  Teachers'  Meetings"  with  the  direction  "State 
on  reverse  page  causes  of  irregularities  marked." 


no     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

work ;  and  (3)  in  the  individual  conference,  he  will 
correct  the  personal  errors,  encourage  the  faltering 
teacher,  and  inspire  the  strong  to  further  suc- 
cesses. 

Criticism.  This  leads  to  that  particular  form 
of  instruction,  criticism.  The  principal  should  not 
criticize  a  teacher  at  all  until  he  has  carefully 
thought  out  the  matter;  but  having  decided  that 
criticism  is  needed,  he  must  administer  it  promptly 
and  courageously.  It  must  always  be  given  in  a 
judicial,  dispassionate  attitude;  never  should  the 
shortcoming  of  the  teacher  be  construed  as  an 
offense  against  the  principal.  Never  should  the 
principal  make  an  ex  parte  judgment ;  he  should  be 
sure  of  his  ground  before  treading  on  it.  Never 
should  he  criticize,  and  rarely  should  he  instruct, 
teachers  in  the  presence  of  their  pupils.1  The 
individual  transgressor  among  the  teachers  should 
be  dealt  with  individually ;  she  and  her  transgression 
should  not  be  reached  through  a  general  criticism 
applied  to  all. 

Oral  criticism  is  usually  more  satisfactory  than 

1  "Principals  must  at  all  times  address  their  teachers  in  a 
courteous  manner,  and  under  no  circumstances  must  they  repri- 
mand, adversely  criticize  or  do  anything  that  will  humiliate  a 
teacher  in  the  presence  of  the  pupils."  —  San  Francisco,  32,  9. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS   in 

written.  The  written  note  is  cold,  formal,  and  often 
misleading.  The  conference  gives  opportunity  for 
question  and  answer  and  a  better  understanding. 
Verbal  expression  can  give  a  sympathetic  color  to 
criticism  which  the  written  word  cannot  convey. 
In  such  a  conference  the  principal  must  be  frank  and 
truthful.  He  must  make  his  appeal  to  the  teacher 
as  her  official  adviser  and  personal  friend,  and  lead 
her  to  correct  herself  rather  than  dogmatically  to 
superimpose  his  own  formal  instructions. 

By  deliberate  planning  the  principal  may  help 
teachers  to  improve  their  work  (i)  on  the  quanti- 
tative side  and  (2)  on  the  qualitative  side. 

1.  Improving  work  as  to  quantity.  On  the 
quantitative  side,  the  chief  lines  of  planning  are : 

a.  Uniform  interpretation  of  the  course  of  study. 

b.  Subdivision  of  the  work  of  the  term. 

c.  Teachers'  records  of  plans  and  progress. 

d.  Daily  time  schedules. 

a.  Interpretation  of  the  course  of  study.  The 
principal  works  through  a  course  of  study  established 
by  higher  authority  for  all  the  schools  in  the  system. 
There  can  be  great  difference  in  the  interpretation 
of  the  curriculum  by  different  principals  within  the 
same  system ;  and  the  principal  should,  and  usually 


112  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

does,  have  the  authority  to  interpret  and  modify 
the  course  to  suit  the  peculiar  needs  of  his  particular 
locality.  It  is  his  duty  to  see  that  teachers  empha- 
size the  proper  topics  in  the  course  and  do  not  lose 
time  by  a  disproportionate  attention  to  the  relatively 
unimportant  items.  Teachers  should  be  encouraged, 
when  in  doubt  as  to  how  intensively  they  should 
consider  a  topic  in  any  subject,  to  ask  the  principal 
for  a  ruling.  The  principal's  rulings,  in  turn,  should, 
through  their  consistency,  bring  about  a  well- 
balanced  treatment  of  all  subjects  throughout  the 
successive  grades  of  the  school. 

b.  Subdivision  of  the  term's  work.  The  work  of 
the  term  should  be  subdivided,  perhaps  into  each 
month's  work, — probably  not  to  any  finer  subdivi- 
sion,— in  order:  (i)  that  the  teacher  shall  not 
mismanage  her  term's  work  by  an  incorrect  estimate 
of  the  time  it  takes  to  cover  various  topics,  for  without 
such  a  plan  she  is  apt  to  give  too  detailed  attention 
throughout  the  early  weeks  of  the  term,  to  discover 
too  late  that  the  required  work  left  undone  cannot 
possibly  be  completed  in  the  remaining  days ;  and 
(2)  that  the  pupils  in  different  classes  of  the  same 
grade  may  work  along  approximately  the  same  lines, 
taking  up  topics  in  about  the  same  order,  thus 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        113 

making  easy  the  transfer  of  pupils  from  class  to 
class  within  the  grade  during  the  term. 

Such  subdivision  of  work  should  be  planned  by 
the  principal  and  teachers  of  the  grade  working 
together.  The  teachers  should  be  brought  in,  first, 
because  they  are  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
detail  work  and  are  usually  able  to  counsel  wisely ; 
and,  secondly,  because  they  will  the  more  readily 
and  successfully  carry  out  a  plan  which  they  have 
helped  to  make. 

The  resulting  plan  should  be  clear  and  definite, 
and  yet  not  too  detailed.  Furthermore,  it  should  be 
considered,  as  should  all  plans  of  the  school,  as 
tentative  and  subject  to  immediate  change  whenever 
such  change  is  clearly  advisable.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  each  term  the  principal  might  well  have  a 
series  of  grade  conferences  in  which  the  subdivision 
plans  in  each  grade  would  be  considered  and  amended 
to  such  an  extent  and  in  such  manner  as  the  expe- 
rience of  the  term  past  seemed  to  warrant. 

c.  Plan  and  progress  records.  Teachers  may  be 
required  to  keep  plan  and  progress  books,  the  former 
by  way  of  prophecy  of  the  coming  day's  work,  the 
latter  to  record  fulfillment.  In  the  plan  book  are 
to  be  set  forth  "  in  logical  order  from  day  to  day  the 


114  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

various  facts  and  principles  to  be  taught  under  each 
subject,  with  sufficient  detail  to  illustrate  clearly 
what  is  meant.' '  The  progress  book,  on  the  other 
hand,  shows  what  has  actually  been  accomplished.1 
The  two  records  may  be  kept  separately  or  to- 
gether.2 The  chief  points  of  value  of  plan  and 
progress  records  are:  (i)  for  the  pupil,  a  more 
profitable  recitation,  more  forceful  and  vigorous 
teaching,  and  more  carefully  selected  and  prepared 
work;    (2)  for  the  teacher,  freedom  from  anxiety 

1  See  "  Progress  Note  Books  and  Group  Teaching,"  by  Charlotte 
E.  Barnum,  in  Bulletin  of  the  Brooklyn  Training  School  for  Teach- 
ers, January,  1918,  presenting  a  plan  by  which  is  recorded  the 
"  progress  of  each  individual  child  instead  of  attempting  to 
state  that  of  the  class  as  a  whole,"  "giving  a  maximum  of 
information  about  each  individual  with  a  minimum  of  clerical 
work." 

Allied  to  this  plan  is  the  "Rabenort-Byrne  Pupil  Proficiency 
Chart"  which  "keeps  before  the  pupil  a  graphic  record  of  daily 
growth,"  "jmakes  the  pupil  self-critical  by  revealing  the  strong 
spots  and  the  weak  spots  in  his  term  record,"  and  "silently 
convinces  [  the  pupil  that  the  teacher  does  not  promote  or 
retard,  but,  that  the  pupil  by  his  own  record  retards  or  pro- 
motes himself."  Dr.  William  Rabenort  is  principal,  Public 
School  55,  The  Bronx,  New  York  City.  Miss  Mary  B.  C. 
Byrne  is  model  teacher,  Summer  School  of  Observation,  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania. 

2  Some  principals  require  each  teacher  to  file  a  monthly  state- 
ment showing  "Work  accomplished"  in  each  subject. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        115 

as  to  what  to  do  next,  and  the  benefits  that  always 
accrue  from  careful  preparation,  since  it  is  unwise 
for  any  teacher  to  attack  a  lesson  trusting  to  the 
inspiration  of  the  moment;  (3)  for  the  substitute, 
easy  taking  up  of  the  precise  work  of  the  day; 
(4)  for  the  principal,  superintendent,  or  other 
visitor,  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  teacher's  and  pupils' 
work. 

It  is  easy,  however,  to  overdo  the  plan-book  idea, 
as  all  other  formulae,  and  a  few  cautions  must  be 
added  as  an  offset  to  the  above  summary  of  ad- 
vantages. If  the  plan  and  progress  books  are  in  any 
degree  elaborate  in  form  and  substance,  (1)  there 
is  a  tendency  to  regard  the  books  as  an  end  in  them- 
selves instead  of  merely  a  means;  (2)  there  may 
develop  an  indifference  to  class  spirit  and  to  the 
finer  elements  of  class  activity;  (3)  emphasis  may 
seem  to  be  placed  on  the  pouring-in  work  of  the 
teacher  at  the  expense  of  response  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils ;  (4)  the  principal  may  be  tempted  to 
substitute  an  inspection  of  these  books  for  an 
investigation  of  the  actual  work  of  the  teacher 
and  class. 

To  secure  the  happy  mean  between  no  plan  books 
and  books  which  are  too  elaborate  is  an  important 


Ii6     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

duty  of  the  principal.1  It  is  advisable  to  require 
different  degrees  of  preparation  by  different  teachers, 
demanding  from  the  beginning  teacher  a  more 
detailed  plan  and  a  more  exact  record  of  progress 
than  from  the  more  experienced  teachers. 

For  the  experienced  teacher  the  following  form  of 
plan  book  will  prove  sufficient.  An  ordinary  memoran- 
dum book,  about  4"  by  6",  with  a  horizontal  ruling, 
indexed  as  shown,  will  give  a  line  or  two  for  each  sub- 
ject and  a  double  page  for  each  day. 

1  Philadelphia  provides  teachers  with  the  following  form  in 
loose-leaf : 

Teacher Grade,    Room  No 

Lessons  for  week  ending ,  191 


Topics  for  Week 
(Only  for  branches  indicated) 


Arithmetic : 
Language : . 
History :  . . . 
Geography : 
Physiology : 


Daily  Lessons 

(Prepare  and  record  lessons,  including  music,  drawing,  gymnastics, 
etc.,  daily  in  advance) 

Monday 

[Followed  by  ample  space,  ruled.     Tuesday  also  on  the  obverse 
side  of  the  sheet  and  the  three  following  days  on  the  reverse] 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        117 


Throughout  the  day,  as  the  work  in  any  subject  is 
completed,  a  concise  note  is  made  of  what  it  is  planned 
to  take  up  the  next  day.  By  the  close  of  the  day  the 
book  is  thus  already  written  up  for  the  following  day. 
Entries  in  pencil  are  usually  sufficient.  The  same  book 
serves  all  necessary  purposes  as  a  progress  book,  because 


the  difference  between  the  work  planned  for  any  one  day 
and  for  the  day  following  will  indicate  the  work  accom- 
plished on  the  first  of  the  two  days.  Emphasis  on 
progress  may  be  made  by  checking  the  items  as  the  work 
is  accomplished,  or  by  checking  in  color,  work  which  it 
was  necessary  to  postpone  to  the  following  day. 


Ii8     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

d.  Daily  time  schedule.  A  daily  program  or 
time  schedule  is  needed  as  a  matter  of  system  for 
the  teacher,  in  order  that  she  may  properly  pro- 
portion the  minutes  of  the  school  day  to  the  separate 
features  of  the  work  in  hand.  The  program  should 
be  the  product  of  the  work  of  both  the  principal 
and  the  teachers  concerned.  He  should  prescribe 
the  general  principles,  and  they  should  work  out 
the  detail,  subject  to  his  final  review  and  approval.1 

The  following  principles  should  be  observed  in 
the  construction  of  the  time  schedule : 

i.  The  time  schedule  must  be  mathematically 
correct.  If  the  school  time  of  the  week  or  month  is, 
by  schedule  issued  by  the  school  board  or  the  super- 
intendent, allotted  to  the  different  subjects  in  the 
curriculum,  the  aggregate  time  for  each  subject  on 
the  daily  schedule  must  agree  with  the  authorized 
totals. 

2.   Unassigned  time,  if  allotted  by   the  author- 

1  The  required  practice  varies  in  different  cities.  Respon- 
sibility for  the  program  is  usually  placed  specifically  upon  the 
principal.  Portland,  Ore.,  however,  provides  that  "The  teacher 
of  each  grade  shall  prepare  a  program  of  daily  exercises,  a  copy 
of  which  shall  be  kept  posted  on  the  inside  and  another  copy  on 
the  outside  of  her  schoolroom  door."  Some  cities  place  the  duty 
upon  the  teachers,  with  the  proviso  that  the  programs  shall  be  ap- 
proved by  the  principal,  and  sometimes,  too,  by  the  superintendent. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        119 

ized  schedule,  must  be  wisely   distributed  in  the 
daily  program,  in  accordance  with  local  needs. 

3.  The  schedules  for  the  various  classes  must 
be  so  arranged  as  to  avoid  conflict  of  recesses, 
assemblies,  and  other  group  or  general  exercises. 

4.  The  number  of  subjects  daily  and  the  length 
of  time  given  to  each  must  be  regulated  and  varied 
according  to  the  grade  of  the  class.  Pupils  in  lower 
grades  need  frequent  change  of  occupation,  with 
periods  not  too  long  to  be  exhausting.  Higher  grade 
pupils  take  longer  periods, — up  to  forty  or  fifty  min- 
utes,— which  reduces  the  daily  number  of  subjects. 

5.  There  should  be  a  proper  distribution  of 
subjects,  an  alternation,  first,  of  those  which  in- 
volve different  phases  of  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil,  and  secondly,  of  those  which  are  taxing, 
including  writing,  spelling,  basal  reading,  drill 
arithmetic,  etc.,  and  those  which  are  relaxing.  It 
would  appear  that  there  is  in  the  human  individual 
a  fairly  regular  alternation  of  maxima  and  minima  of 
vital  energy ;  and  that  the  periods  of  maxima  are  ap- 
proximately from  9 :  30  to  n  :  00,  both  morning  and 
afternoon,  and  the  two  periods  of  minima  approxi- 
mately from  3  to  4,  both  morning  and  afternoon. 
Failure  to  take  this  fact  into  account  may  result 


120     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

in  pupils  becoming  fatigued  beyond  the  point  of 
normality. 

Fatigue  is  a  physical  matter,  concerned  with  brain 
cells,  motor  centers,  muscles,  etc.  It  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  weariness,  ennui,  or  boredom,  which  is  psy- 
chological. Weariness  may  cause  a  subjective  feeling 
of  fatigue  and  hence  may  be  mistaken  for  fatigue.  One 
might  listen  for  an  hour  to  a  lecture,  perhaps  on  peda- 
gogy, and  be  "bored  to  death."  It  means  that  the 
speaker  has  been  dull  and  uninspiring  and  the  listener, 
who  has  been  under  a  strain  trying  to  keep  awake  for  ap- 
pearance' sake,  has  gone  away  tired  out.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  lecturer  might  hold  and  inspire  his  audience 
and  carry  them  through  an  hour  of  close  thinking  with 
the  result  that  they  would  be  physically,  though  happily, 
tired  out  from  the  strain  of  continued  attention. 

Work,  under  proper  conditions,  is  healthful  and  neces- 
sary to  well-being.  The  strain  resulting  from  complete 
reaction  to  work,  proper  in  kind  and  amount,  is  normal 
fatigue.  Only  when  the  toxins  produced  by  fatigue  are 
allowed  to  accumulate  by  an  undue  proportion  of  work 
to  rest,  and,  perhaps,  too,  as  the  result  of  worry  and 
other  factors,  does  the  fatigue  become  abnormal  and 
dangerous.     It  is  then  pathological  fatigue. 

The  proper  alternation  of  school  subjects  in  the  daily 
program  serves  to  create  the  cadence  of  stress  and  respite 
which  prevents  fatigue  from  running  to  abnormality. 
Several  studies  concerning  the  relation  of  school  work  to 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        1 21 

fatigue  have  been  made.  The  result  is  almost  to  con- 
vince us  that  the  more  we  learn  about  fatigue  the  less 
we  know. 

6.  The  degree  of  rigidity  of  the  schedule  may- 
vary  with  the  experience  and  ability  of  the  teacher. 
The  new  teacher  will  need  the  detailed  supervision 
that  is  involved  in  being  required  to  adhere  closely 
to  an  exact  allotment  of  time  and  lessons.  Such  a 
teacher  will  have  a  schedule  of  the  usual  form,  in 
which  is  indicated,  for  each  day  of  the  week,  the 
exact  order  of  all  exercises  and  the  time  to  be 
devoted  to  each.  An  excellent  form  is  that  in  use 
in  Worcester,  Mass.,  shown  on  page  122. 

Liberal  interpretation  should  be  allowed  to  ex- 
perienced teachers.  Conditions  vary  within  a  class 
from  time  to  time.  The  physical  environment,  the 
weather,  interruptions  by  visitors,  special  exercises, 
special  absence  of  pupils  in  large  number,  and  many 
other  causes,  contribute  to  make  one  Tuesday,  for 
instance,  quite  different  from  another.  The  expe- 
rienced teacher  may  be  trusted  to  evaluate  these 
variations  and  to  modify  her  day's  program  accord- 
ingly. For  such  a  teacher  a  schedule  may  be  pro- 
vided in  which  the  number  of  minutes  daily  for  each 
subject  is  prescribed  and  she  is  left  free  to  make 


122     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 


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THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        123 

such  distributions  of  the  periods  through  the  day 
as  may  seem  best. 

The  following  is  a  convenient  form : 

FLEXIBLE  DAILY  TIME  SCHEDULE 
Class Room 

Showing  number  of  minutes  to  be  devoted  to  each  subject  daily 


Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Opening 
Exercises 

Physical 
Training 

Recess  from 
. . .  to  . . . 

Games  from 
. . .  to  . . . 

Shop,  Cook- 
ing,   Sew- 
ing,   from 
...  to  . . . 

Study 

Unassigned . 
Total. . . 

- 

Opening 
Exercises 

Physical 
Training 

Recess  from 
. . .  to  . . . 

Games  from 
. . .  to  .  . . 

Shop,  Cook- 
ing,   Sew- 
ing,   from 
. . .  to  . . . 

Study 

Unassigned . 
Total.  .  . 

— 

Opening 
Exercises 

Physical 
Training 

Recess  from 
. . .  to  .  . . 

Games  from 
. . .  to  .  . . 

Shop,  Cook- 
ing,   Sew- 
ing,   from 
. . .  to  .  . . 

Study 

Unassigned . 
Total  . . . 

— 

Opening 
Exercises 

Physical 
Training 

Recess  from 
. . .  to  . . . 

Games  from 
. . .  to  . . . 

Shop,  Cook- 
ing,   Sew- 
ing,   from 
. . .  to  . . . 

Study 

Unassigned. 
Total.  .  . 

- 

Opening 
Exercises 

Physical 
Training 

Recess  from 
. . .  to  .  . . 

Games  from 
. . .  to  . . . 

Shop,  Cook- 
ing,   Sew- 
ing,   from 
. . .  to  . . . 

Study 

Unassigned . 
Total.  .  . 

In  determining  the  order  in  which  these  subjects  are  to  be  taken, 
the  teacher  will  exercise  her  judgment,  remembering  (1)  that 
pupils  are  influenced  by  conditions  which  may  differ  from  day  to 
day ;  (2)  that  subjects  which  are  taxing  and  those  which  are  relax- 
ing should  be  properly  alternated ;  and  (3)  that  the  curve  of  fatigue 
shows  a  minimum  amount  of  energy  available  between  11  and  12. 

Teachers  applying  this  schedule  must  remember  (1) 
that  relaxation  may  take  the  form  of  either  rest  or  rec- 
reation; (2)  that  gymnastics  are  not  essentially  relaxing, 
but,  measured  by  the  amount  of  normal  fatigue  produced, 
rank  with  the  formal  studies  such  as  arithmetic  and  gram- 


124     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

mar ;  (3)  that  five  two-minute  periods  of  setting-up  exer- 
cises are  more  valuable  as  relaxation  than  a  ten-minute 
period  of  physical  culture ;  and  (4)  that  rest  may  come 
from  change  of  occupation,  so  that  there  is  a  certain 
degree  of  relaxation  resulting  from  the  proper  alternation 
of  the  different  phases  of  work. 

2.  Improving  work  as  to  quality.  On  the  qual- 
itative side,  the  chief  lines  of  planning  are : 

a.  Securing  uniformity  of  methods. 

b.  Securing  correlation. 

c.  Maintaining  quality  of  pupils'  work. 

d.  Giving  model  lessons. 

a.  Uniform  methods.  The  principal  will  super- 
vise the  work  of  teachers  in  such  a  way  that  the 
work  of  one  grade  will  dovetail  into  the  work  of  the 
next  grade.  Particularly  will  this  be  accomplished 
by  prescribing  uniform  methods  in  those  subjects 
which  continue  from  grade  to  grade. 

For  example,  there  are  several  methods  of  teach- 
ing problems  in  interest.  Three  teachers  in  three 
successive  grades  may  each  be  expert  in  the  handling 
of  a  different  method.  Yet  it  is  better  that  the  prin- 
cipal decide  upon  one  method  and  prescribe  its  use 
in  all  three  grades  than  that  the  pupil  go  from  one 
method  to  the  others,  however  excellent  each  may  be. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS         125 

b.  Correlation.  Proper  correlation  must  be  ef- 
fected between  the  various  subjects  in  each  grade. 
Particularly  is  this  necessary  when  the  principal  has 
administrative  assistants  with  whom  he  shares  the 
work  of  the  school  vertically,  and  in  the  depart- 
mental system,  where  the  subjects  of  the  same  grade 
are  taught  by  several  teachers. 

c.  Quality  of  pupils7  work.  Some  system  should 
be  established  for  commending  the  good  work  of 
pupils  and  for  condemning  their  poor  work. 

For  commendation,  meritorious  work  may  be  sent  to 
the  principal's  office,  —  at  stated  times  of  the  day  is 
probably  best,  —  there  to  receive  his  personal  approval, 
which,  in  addition  to  oral  expression,  may  be  indicated 
by  his  marking  or  stamping  the  paper  Excellent,  Very 
Good,  etc.,  adding  his  signature. 

For  work  which  should  be  commended  but  which  has 
no  tangible  product,  or  which  it  may  not  be  practicable 
to  stamp,  a  commendation  card,  as  shown  here  may 


Name 

FOR  COMMENDATION 

Room 

For 

Date 

...191... 

Approved . 

.  Teacher 

126      THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

be  issued  by  the  teacher  and  presented  by  the  pupil  for 
his  signature  in  approval.  It  is  best  to  limit  the  use 
of  such  cards,  perhaps  to  two  per  day  per  class.  They 
may  be  used  for  a  variety  of  cases :  improvement,  gen- 
eral or  in  some  particular  subject ;  effort,  specially  ap- 
plied or  general ;  generally  good  deportment  or  lessons ; 
some  particular  exercise  of  marked  excellence,  as  a  good 
v  composition,  neat  penmanship,  a  beautiful  drawing, 
clean-cut  gymnastics. 

Some  cities  provide  a  printed  "  Certificate  of  Merit " 
or  "  Reward  of  Merit "  to  be  issued  periodically  to 
pupils  "for  correct  deportment  and  diligent  attention 
to  studies/'  or  some  other  happily-phrased  virtues,  and 
to  be  signed  by  teacher,  or  principal,  or  both. 

Mr.  Frederick  W.  Memmott,  principal,  Public  School 
2,  Brooklyn,  New  York,  uses  a  note  form  to  the 
parent,  reading,  "Almost  every  day  some  pupil  is 
sent  to  me  with  a  particularly  nice  piece  of  work.  You 
will  be  pleased  to  know  that  my  visitor  to-day  was 
your  .  .  ." 

Similarly,  the  teacher  should  have  the  opportunity 
of  sending  unsatisfactory  written  work  to  the  principal. 
He  may  stamp  the  papers  with  some  such  form  as : 
This  work  is  below  the  average 
of  the  class. 
Kindly  examine  it  and  return  it 
to  the  school,  with  your  signature. 
Respectfully, 

[Signed] 
Principal. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        127 

The  papers  are  sent  to  the  parent.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  the  receipted  papers  be  returned  to  the  office  unless 
the  teacher  has  doubt  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
parent's  signature,  in  which  case  she  should  promptly 
refer  it  to  the  principal.  He  will  investigate  and,  if  the 
teacher's  suspicion  proves  correct,  dispose  of  it  as  a  case 
of  "discipline." 

There  are  certain  advantages  gained  by  sending  papers 
home  in  this  way:  1.  It  keeps  the  parents  informed 
as  to  the  pupil's  progress,  and  most  parents  appreciate 
the  information.  2.  It  spurs  pupils  to  better  work. 
3.  It  helps  establish  the  justice  of  a  pupil's  non-promo- 
tion at  the  close  of  the  term ;  a  series  of  papers  thus  signed 
and  returned  by  the  parent  precludes  astonishment  that 
his  child  failed  of  promotion.  4.  The  principal's  stamp 
on  a  paper  gives  its  reference  to  the  parent  added  dignity 
and  authority.  If  the  parent  wishes  to  reply  in  writing 
or  by  personal  call,  he  knows  that  he  must  reckon  with  the 
principal,  and  naturally  goes  directly  to  him.  The 
principal  can  best  handle  the  interests  of  all  concerned, 
and  can  best  decide  whether  the  teacher  should  be  called 
to  interview  the  parent. 

After  a  number  of  unsatisfactory  papers  of  any  one 
pupil  have  been  sent  home,  with  no  material  improvement 
resulting,  or  when  the  pupil's  poor  work  is  rather  a 
matter  of  oral  recitation,  the"teacher  should  have  the  op- 
portunity of  communicating  with  the  parent  by  some 
such  form  as  the  following : 


128     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY   SCHOOL 

Public  School  No.  ioo, 

Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 

New  York, 19 

M 

Dear  : 

I  am  sorry  that  I  must  remind  you  that 's 

work  in is  still  below  the  average  of  the 

class.  Will  you  please  to  give  the  matter  your  attention 
and  cooperate  with  us  in  securing  better  results? 

Respectfully, 

(Teacher.) 
This,  and  similar  notes  from  teachers  to  parents,  may, 
with  good  effect,  be  countersigned  by  the  office  thus : 

PLEASE    SIGN   AND    RE- 
TURN   TO    THE    SCHOOL 

[Principal] 

If  necessary,  this  might  be  followed  by  other  forms,  read- 
ing 

's  poor  work  continues.    It  would  be 

to  h. .  best  interest  if  you  would  call  here  at  your  earliest 
convenience. 

or 

's  poor  work  still  continues.    Unless 

there  is  decided  improvement  immediately,  .  .he  will  be 
placed  in  the  next  grade  below. 

It  is  well,  too,  to  send  such  a  form  as : 

I  am  glad  to  inform  you  that has 

improved  in  


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        129 

d.  Model  lessons.  One  of  the  most  direct  means 
of  improving  the  teacher's  work  is  the  model  lesson. 
The  principal  may  often  teach  in  the  classroom  with 
some  other  aim  in  view,1  but  when  he  is  giving  a 
model  lesson  he  should  keep  in  mind  : 

1.  The  lesson  should  be  given  in  a  constructive 
spirit  and  in  an  attitude  that  is  in  sympathy  with  the 
difficulties  of  the  teacher.  The  aim  is  to  help  the 
teacher  better  her  work ;  there  must  be  nothing  of 
the  "  show  off,"  no  display  of  information  or  exploit- 
ing of  ideas,  but  a  straightforward  demonstration 
to  the  teacher,  either  of  general  method  or  of  the 
particular  point  that  has  baffled  her,  to  help  her  in 
her  actual  difficulty. 

2.  The  pupils  should  not  be  permitted  to  under- 
stand that  the  purpose  of  the  principal  is  to  teach 
the  teacher.  They  should  regard  the  teacher  as 
thoroughly  competent,  and  the  principal's  lesson 
as  a  mere  incident  in  the  day's  proceedings. 

3.  The  principal  should,  if  possible,  not  interfere 
with  the  regular  order  of  lessons,  and  should  take 
no  longer  time  with  his  model  lesson  than  the  teacher 
is  expected  to  take  in  the  same  exercise.  For  the 
principal  to  drop  into  the  classroom,  become  in- 

1  See  page  396, 


130     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

terested  in  the  work  going  on,  take  the  exercise  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  teacher  and  display  his  own 
knowledge  on  the  subject,  is  not  to  give  a  model 
lesson.  In  any  such  procedure  he  is  likely  to  ramble 
away  from  the  point  of  the  lesson,  to  exceed  the 
time  scheduled,  and  to  leave  the  subject  in  a  worse 
condition  than  if  the  teacher  had  finished  it  in 
accordance  with  her  own  prearranged  plan. 

4.  Teachers  should  be  encouraged  to  ask  for 
model  lessons.  Then,  they  should  not  always  be 
given.  The  teacher  should  be  expected  to  exhaust 
all  other  reasonable  sources  of  assistance  before 
appealing  to  the  principal.  That  is,  she  should  not 
be  permitted  to  develop  a  weakness  that  would  lead 
her  to  call  for  help  before  she  had  attempted  to  solve 
her  problem  herself.  Even  when  she  comes  to  the 
principal,  if  he,  as  is  often  the  case,  can  help  more 
by  not  giving  a  model  lesson,  then  he  should  refrain. 

For  instance,  a  teacher  says :  "  Last  term  I 
had  difficulty  with  the  teaching  of  this  topic.  We 
have  reached  it  for  this  term ;  will  you  present  the 
lesson  to  my  class?  "  The  principal  replies :  "  In- 
dicate to  me  carefully  the  steps  by  which  you 
presented  it  last  term,"  and  then  attends  to  her 
demonstration    of    her    own    method.    Upon    her 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        131 

completing  it,  he  says :  "  At  such  a  point  you 
followed  with  such  and  such  a  point.  Had  you, 
instead,  gone  in  this  other  direction  and  taken 
so-and-so,  would  it  have  been  better? "  The 
teacher  grasps  the  idea,  admits  that  her  own  method 
appears  weak  at  just  that  point,  and  sees  the  better 
way.  The  principal  then  sends  her  back  to  her 
class  to  give  the  lesson  herself  in  accordance  with 
this  new  method  which  she  herself  has  worked  out. 

Such  a  disposition  of  the  problem  is  of  more  value 
to  the  teacher  than  if  the  principal  gives  the  lesson 
himself.  However,  if  the  teacher  does  not  grasp 
the  point  made  by  the  principal,  or  else  does  not 
agree  that  his  method  is  an  improvement  on  her  own, 
he  should  try  it  in  the  class  himself,  with  the  result 
either  that  the  inquiring  teacher  now  understands 
the  method,  or  that  the  teacher  with  doubts  is 
convinced  of  its  value.  If  the  result  of  the  lesson 
should  indicate  that  the  doubting  teacher's  skepti- 
cism was  justified,  the  principal  must  frankly  admit 
it  and  give  the  subject  further  study. 

5.  Every  model  lesson,  given  as  such,  should  be 
followed  by  conference  with  the  teacher.  It  may 
be  pointed  out  to  her  that  the  principal,  in  giving  the 
lesson,  labors  under  a  decided  advantage  in  that  he 


132     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

brings  with  him  novelty  and  authority,  and  under  a 
decided  disadvantage  in  that  he  does  not  know  the 
individual  pupils,  their  respective  temperaments  and 
abilities;  and  that  these  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages practically  offset  each  other.  The  teacher 
should  be  asked  to  criticize  the  lesson  just  as  the 
principal  would  criticize  a  similar  lesson  given  by 
the  teacher ;  and  the  principal  should  take  up  each 
point  of  criticism  or  comment,  and  answer  or  explain 
it.  Only  by  frank  discussion  can  the  teacher  be  led 
to  see  the  better  way  and  her  pupils  get  the  ulti- 
mate benefit  of  improved  methods  by  the  teacher. 

6.  Finally,  the  principal  should  keep  a  careful 
record  of  such  service  rendered  to  teachers,  noting 
the  teacher's  name,  class,  general  conditions,  subject 
taught,  length  of  lesson,  results  of  conference,  etc. 
This  is  frequently  specifically  required  by  by-laws 
of  boards  of  education. 

The  principal  will  remember  that  he  is  not  the 
only  one  who  can  give  model  lessons.  Every  good 
teacher  is  pretty  sure  to  excel  in  some  points.  The 
school  should  draw,  for  the  common  good,  upon 
every  teacher's  special  excellence.  The  principal 
should  arrange  for  interchange  of  teachers  in  ob- 
serving one  another's  best  work.    It  makes  for  the 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        133 

finest  professional  good  will  if  the  principal  some- 
times, in  replying  to  the  request  of  a  teacher  for  a 
model  lesson,  says,  "  I  should  be  glad  to  give  such  a 
lesson,  but  Miss  X  can  do  it  much  better  than  I ; 
we  will  ask  her  to  give  it." 

On  the  whole,  as  to  the  qualitative  work  of  the 
teacher,  if  the  principal  will  protect  her  from  out- 
side interference,  from  parents,  book  agents,  can- 
vassers, and  even  from  himself  and  other  supervisors, 
equip  her  with  automatic  aids  such  as  have  been 
indicated,  and  develop  in  the  teaching  corps  a  spirit 
of  generous  rivalry  in  sharing  new  methods,  new 
devices,  and  new  sources  of  inspiration,  he  may  hold 
her  responsible  for  quality  and  results,  and  in  the 
majority  of  cases  he  will  get  them  without  further 
effort. 

Rating  teachers.  A  school  system  must  have 
some  record  of  the  quality  of  the  work  of  the  indi- 
vidual members  of  its  teaching  force.  This  con- 
cerns the  principal,  for  it  is  usually  upon  his  judg- 
ment, in  whole  or  in  part,  that  the  official  rating  of 
his  teachers  depends.  The  rating  of  teachers,  then, 
is  a  necessary  but  not  very  pleasant  duty  of  the 
principal.  He  will  determine  his  ratings  by  com- 
bining two  factors:    (a)   the  general  day-by-day 


134     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

impression   which   he   has    of    each   teacher,   and 
(b)  special  consideration  of  her  work.1 

a.  By  general  impression.  There  are  many  op- 
portunities for  the  principal  to  gain  a  general  esti- 
mate of  a  teacher  without  considering  her  work  in 
detail.  Her  attitude  toward  her  work,  her  general 
scholarship  and  culture,  her  personal  tidiness,  her 
attendance  and  punctuality,  her  willingness  to 
cooperate  for  the  good  of  the  school  aside  from  the 
required  class  work,2  her  influence  on  her  pupils  as 

1  See  "The  Rating  of  Teachers  by  no  Principals  in  Ten  Hy- 
pothetical Cases,"  in  Semi-Annual  Report,  July  i,  1915,  Division 
of  Reference  and  Research,  New  York  City,  which  showed  "  that 
even  in  the  distinction  between  satisfactory  and  unsatisfactory 
there  is  little  agreement  of  opinion." 

2  In  performing  such  services  as  the  following,  for  example : 
Class  work  —  1.   assisting    backward    pupils    after 

school. 
School  work —  1.    yard  duty  —  voluntary,  in  excess 

of  regular  assignment. 

2.  assembly — conducting  music,  play- 
ing piano,  arranging  program,  etc. 

3.  motion  pictures  —  operating  ma- 
chine. 

4.  discipline  —  general  interest  as  dis- 
tinguished from  discipline  of  as- 
signed class. 

5.  clerical  work  —  of  office. 

6.  interpreter  —  in  interviews  with 
parents  and  others. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        135 

shown  by  their  bearing  and  conduct  outside  the 
classroom,  her  manner  in  interviews  with  parents,  — 
all  these,  and  more,  are  indications  of  the  character 
of  the  work  of  the  teacher,  which  the  principal  may 
observe  without  entering  her  classroom.  Also,  as  he 
goes  about  from  room  to  room  on  the  routine  busi- 
ness of  the  school,  the  principal,  with  whom  alertness 
has  become  a  second  nature,  makes  observations 
which  contribute  toward  his  estimates  of  all  teachers. 
He  must,  however,  exercise  great  caution  in  general- 
izing. He  must  be  extremely  careful  to  distinguish 
between  what  he  sees  and  what  he  thinks  he  sees. 

b.  By  formal  inspection.  The  principal  will  not, 
however,  base  his  official  rating  upon  this  one 
general  factor ;  particularly  in  the  case  of  a  teacher 

Extra-school  activities  —  1.   athletics  —  directing. 

2.  pupils'      organizations  —  presiding 
over,  and  assisting. 

3.  excursions  —  of    pupils    to    parks, 
museums,  games,  etc. 

Supplementary  aid —      1.  visits  —  to  homes  of  pupils. 

2.  parents'   meetings,   etc.,  —  attend- 
ing, organizing. 

3.  alumni  interest  —  organizing  asso- 
ciations, employment  exchange,  etc. 

4.  relief  work. 

5.  patriotic  work. 


136     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

whom  he  regards,  on  this  general  basis,  as  unsatis- 
factory, it  is  necessary  that  he  should  at  certain 
intervals  —  longer  in  proportion  as  the  teacher  is 
the  more  experienced  and  has  repeatedly  demon- 
strated her  fitness  —  make  formal  inspection  of  the 
work  of  the  teacher.1 

In  such  an  inspection  the  principal  will  examine 
the  written  work  of  both  teacher  and  pupils.  The 
record  books  kept  by  the  teacher  exhibit  her  ability 
to  plan  and  proportion  her  work,  as  well  as  her 
accuracy  and  neatness.  The  pupils'  compositions, 
arithmetic  papers,  and  drawings  tell  a  significant 
story  to  the  intelligent  inspector.  The  blackboard 
work  of  both  teacher  and  pupils  shows  whether  or 
not  the  teacher  is  making  a  pedagogical  use  of  the 
blackboard;  and,  in  lower  grades  especially,  the 
teacher's  own  work  should  be  judged  on  the  basis 
of  its  being  a  model  before  the  eyes  of  the  pupils. 

More  significant,  however,  are  the  teacher  and 
the  pupils  themselves.     The  class  in  action  is  the 

Specifically  required  in  many  cities  —  e.g.  Richmond,  "In 
schools  of  eight  or  more  classes  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  principals  to 
inspect  some  classes  daily  and  all  classes  within  two  days,"  and 
Rochester,  where  principals  "shall  devote  some  portion  of  each  day 
to  visiting  the  various  classes  of  the  school  for  the  purpose  of 
supervising  and  directing  the  work  of  the  teachers." 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        137 

great  criterion.  Teaching  in  accordance  with  good 
method,  intelligent  and  skillful  questioning  of  pupils, 
logical  and  pedagogical  development  of  subjects, 
unforced  and  effective  correlation"  of  the  various 
subjects,  illumination  of  lessons  with  illustrative 
material,  and  finally,  the  clinching  of  a  lesson  and 
sufficient  drill  upon  its  main  features,  —  all  these 
are  elements  in  teaching  ability.  The  testing  of  the 
pupils  may  also  serve  as  an  index  to  the  teacher's 
ability.1 

With  these  go  certain  other  features  which  are 
distinguished  rather  as  elements  in  disciplinary 
ability,  although  the  wisdom  or  necessity  of  making 
such  a  distinction  between  "  teaching  "  and  "  dis- 
cipline "  is  open  to  argument.  Included  are  the 
teacher's  poise  and  self-control ;  her  manner  before 
the  class ;  her  reaching  the  individual  pupil  in  mass 
teaching;  her  power  to  secure  a  true  interest  and 
attention,  not  merely  "  cutaneous  excitation  " ;  her 
use  of  expression  and  voice  as  pedagogical  means, 
the  voice  effectively  modulated  and  varied  in  its 
tone ;  her  executive  ability  in  going  from  one  activity 
to  another ;  in  short,  her  control  of  her  class.  The 
mere  fact  that  a  class  is  under  control,  "  in  order," 
1  See  page  302. 


138     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

is  not  sufficient ;  the  character  of  the  control  is  of 
far  greater  importance,  and  the  experienced  principal 
will  discount  the  control  that  is  only  apparently 
and  superficially  good,  and  credit  the  control  that 
indicates  finesse  in  the  skill  of  the  teacher.1 

Throughout  every  inspection  the  teacher  must 
be  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  principal  is 


1  Each  city  has  its  distinctive  rating  code  emphasizing  particular 
qualifications.  New  York  City  periodically  rates  teachers  on  only 
two  points,  instruction  and  discipline,  with  three  subtopics  under 
each  to  be  rated  in  case  the  main  rating  is  unsatisfactory.  Special 
reports  to  assist  in  determining  promotion,  salary  increases,  and 
renewal  of  license,  are  more  detailed. 

New  Orleans  uses  a  particularly  comprehensive  report  covering 
the  following  items : 


PERSONAL  EQUIPMENT  - 

Voice 

Speech,  vision,  hearing 
Initiative  and  self-reliance 
Adaptability   and   resource- 
fulness 
Accuracy 
Industry 


Promptness 

Self-control 

Tact 

Energy  and  endurance 

Judicial-mindedness 

Cheerfulness  and  optimism 

Neatness 


SOCIAL  AND  PROFESSIONAL  EQUIPMENT  — 


Academic  preparation 
Professional  preparation 
Grasp  of  subject  matter 
Understanding  of  children 
Interest  in  lives  of  pupils 
Interest  in  life  of  the  school 
Interest  in  life  of  commu- 
nity 


Ability  to   meet  and  interest 

patrons 
Professional      interests       and 

growth 
Daily  preparation  and  plan 
Cooperation  with  principals  and 

teachers 
Command  of  and  use  of  English 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        139 

present  in  a  constructive,  not  destructive,  spirit; 
that  he  is  there  to  render  her  assistance  in  her 

SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  — 

Attention  to  hygienic  con-       Care  of  routine 
ditions  —  light,  heat,  ven-       Neatness  of  room 
tilation,  seating  Discipline  (skill  in  governing) 

TECHNIQUE  OF  TEACHING  — 

Definiteness  and  clearness  of  Teaching  pupils  to  study 

aim  Skill     and     care     in     assign- 
Skill  in  habit  formation  ment 

Skill  in  stimulating  thought  Attention  to  individual  needs 

Skill  in  questioning  Choice  of  method 

Organization  of  subject  mat-  Use  of  teaching  devices 
ter 

RESULTS  SECURED   IN  PUPILS  — 

Attention   and   response   of  Improvement   in    self-direction 

the  class  and  initiative 

Growth  of  pupils  in  subject  Moral  growth 

matter  Love  of  school  and  ambition  for 

Improvement   in   habits   of  education 

work 

A  notable  feature  of  this  report  consists  of  the  following  sup- 
plementary items : 

Special  educational  work  done  by  teacher  since  last  report 
(summer  school,  extension  courses,  correspondence  courses, 
articles  or  books  published,  addresses  delivered). 

Approximate  number  of  times  principal  observed  work  of 
teacher. 

Approximate  total  length  in  hours  of  these  observations. 

Number  of  conferences  held  with  teacher. 

Special  conditions  not  under  control  of  teacher  affecting  un- 
favorably the  efficiency  of  her  work. 

The  last  item  of  this  report  is  one  that  is  too  often  not  taken 
into  account  by  principals  when  they  evaluate  teachers. 


140     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

service  to  her  pupils ;  that  his  aim  is  not  primarily 
to  rate  her,  but  to  work  with  her  for  her  betterment 
and  that  of  the  pupils.  Every  formal  inspection 
should  be  followed  by  conference  in  which  the  condi- 
tion of  the  work  is  made  the  subject  of  frank  and 
sympathetic  discussion.1  The  teacher  should  be  led 
to  realize  her  shortcomings,  if  any  have  been  dis- 
covered, —  to  convict  herself,  rather  than  to  receive 
formal  mandatory  instructions. 

Notice  of  rating.  Whenever  ratings  are  made  of 
teachers  and  forwarded  to  higher  authority,  justice 
at  least  demands,  whether  it  is  required  by  the~  rules 
or  not,  that  a  copy  should  be  presented  to  the 
teachers  concerned.2  If  the  rating  is  unsatisfactory, 
it  might  be  well  to  precede  the  formal  written  state- 

1  The  human  teacher  will  read  with  feeling  A  Dominie's  Log  by 
A.  S.  Neill,  and  particularly  the  dominie's  imaginary  report  of 
inspection  of  the  inspector's  inspection,  beginning  at  page  134, 
and  ending  with  "  Mr.  Beans's  knowledge  of  dates  is  wonderful, 
and  his  parsing  has  all  the  glory  of  Early  Victorian  furniture." 

2  One  city  prescribes  that  the  third  highest  rating  which  it 
employs  "is  the  highest  mark  given  until  the  fourth  half  year 
here,"  and  the  fourth  highest  "the  highest  until  the  second." 
This  seems  nearly  as  questionable  as  the  requirement  of  the  Civil 
Service  authorities  in  another  city  that  not  more  than  thirty 
per  cent  of  its  Department  of  Education  employees  shall  be  rated 
"above  standard,"  thus  advertising  that  it  seeks  mediocrity  in 
service. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        141 

ment  with  an  informal  conference  in  which  the 
principal  expresses  regret  that  the  teacher's  work 
makes  necessary  such  a  rating,  indicates  the  lines 
of  possible  improvement,  and  gives  such  encourage- 
ment as  the  case  may  warrant.1 

Substitute  teachers.  Every  school  must  make 
some  provision  for  the  care  of  the  classes  of  absent 
teachers  2  or  pending  the  appointment  of  a  regular 
teacher.  Usually  the  school  system  provides  regu- 
larly licensed  substitute  teachers  to  meet  such 
emergencies.  The  principal  must  exercise  judgment 
in  assigning  substitutes.  He  will  be  sympathetic 
with  the  difficulties  with  which  most  of  them  con- 
tend such  as  lack  of  experience,  difference  of  aim  and 

1  Mr.  Alexander  Fichthandler,  principal,  Public  School  165, 
Brooklyn,  New  York,  invites  his  teachers  to  rate  themselves.  He 
gives  them  a  form  containing  two  columns  instead  of  one,  autorating 
as  well  as  principal's  rating.  Each  teacher  enters  her  own  ratings. 
The  form  is  then  given  to  the  principal,  who  inserts  his  ratings  and 
returns  it  to  the  teacher.  If  the  two  sets  of  ratings  do  not  accord 
and  the  teacher  desires  to  discuss  them,  a  conference  follows. 

2  Portland,  Ore.,  provides :  "Any  teacher  finding  it  impossible 
to  attend  school  on  any  day,  must  send  timely  notice  to  the  prin- 
cipal, together  with  all  school  keys  and  such  information  as  may 
assist  the  substitute  to  do  efficient  work.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of 
such  absent  teacher  to  give  the  principal  timely  notice  of  his  or  her 
intention  to  resume  school  work,  subject  to  a  deduction  of  one-half 
day's  pay  for  failure  to  give  such  notice." 


142   THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

method  in  different  schools,  need  to  adapt  themselves 
to  different  grades  and  various  situations,  ignorance 
of  the  histories  and  even  of  the  names  of  pupils. 

The  principal  can  anticipate  and  forestall  some 
difficulties.  He  may,  in  advance  of  placing  the 
teacher,  temporarily  transfer  to  other  classes  those 
pupils  who  have  previously  demonstrated  non- 
pacifist  tendencies.  He  may  enlist  a  near-by  teacher 
to  keep  a  special  sororal  eye  on  the  substitute,  indi- 
cating to  her  and  to  her  pupils  that  cooperation  is 
at  hand.  He  may  plan  his  own  day's  work  so  that  he 
gives  more  than  usual  time  to  the  class.  Moreover, 
he  must,  if  possible,  treat  the  situation  in  such  a  way 
that  pupils  gain  the  impression  that  the  substitute 
is  not  inferior  to  the  regular  teacher  and  that  any 
special  solicitude  for  her  that  they  may  detect  is 
but  accidental.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  speak 
of  her,  officially  at  least,  as  "  the  substitute."  The 
principal  should  introduce  her  to  the  class  and 
induct  her  into  the  work  of  the  day.  Pupils  must 
thereafter,  in  speaking  to  her  or  of  her,  call  her  by 
name. 

If  a  substitute  teacher  once  becomes  thoroughly 
established  in  a  school  she  of  course  presents  no 
further  special  problem.    The  absence  of  the  teacher 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        143 

of  a  difficult  class  often  gives  the  principal  the  oppor- 
tunity to  "  try  out "  one  of  his  less  experienced  regular 
teachers  by  assigning  her  temporarily  to  the  more  diffi- 
cult situation  and  giving  her  class  to  the  substitute. 

In  a  large  school  it  is  often  impossible  for  the  principal 
to  give  time  for  a  lengthy  conference  with  a  substitute 
teacher  before  she  enters  the  classroom.  Written  in- 
structions may  take  the  place  of  conference  with  the 
teacher  who  is  to  substitute  in  the  school  for  the  first 
time.    The  following  has  proven  useful : 

Instructions  to  Substitute  Teachers 

Do  not  permit  any  pupil  to  see  this  notice. 

You  should  find  a  plan  book  in  the  teacher's  desk  indicat- 
ing in  brief  outline  the  work  which  she  had  planned  to  have 
for  the  day.  If  this  is  not  to  be  found  please  inform  the 
principal  of  the  fact.  If  you  do  not  fully  understand  the 
work  as  thus  indicated,  consult  the  nearest  teacher  of  the 
same  grade,  who  will  gladly  explain  it  to  you  and  advise 
you  as  to  details.  Follow  this  plan  as  closely  as  possible, 
except  that : 

(1)  Unless  you  feel  strongly  intrenched  as  to  discipline, 
do  not  attempt  drawing  or  construction  work  or  any  other 
exercise  involving  the  extensive  handling  of  materials,  and 

(2)  Unless  you  have  permission  from  one  of  the  offices, 
do  not  undertake  any  new  presentation  work  in  mathematics 
or  science. 

As  to  discipline,  insist  upon  a  high  standard  of  deportment 


144     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

from  the  first  minute  of  your  appearance  in  the  classroom. 
Do  not  overlook  the  first  lapses  —  condemn  them  definitely 
and  specifically.  Do  not,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
report  a  pupil  to  the  office  for  the  first  offense ;  but  do  not 
hesitate  to  report  promptly  a  pupil  guilty  of  willful  disobe- 
dience or  impertinence.  In  making  such  a  report,  do  it  with 
formality  —  fill  out  a  " discipline"  card,  making  the  com- 
plaint specific,  and  direct  the  pupil  to  take  the  card  to  the 
proper  office  [offices  indicated].  After  reporting  a  pupil 
do  not  permit  him  to  return  to  your  room  on  any  pretext 
whatever.  He  is  to  be  readmitted  only  upon  personal  or 
written  direction  from  the  office. 

At  an  early  opportunity  note  and  carefully  read  the  Fire- 
Drill  card  posted  in  the  room. 

The  names  of  pupils  given  permission  to  leave  the  room  are 
to  be  recorded  in  the  Time-Lost  book.  If  the  number  be- 
comes unreasonably  large,  please  report  the  fact  to  the  office. 

Pupils  who  are  late  are  to  be  sent  to  the  general  office. 

Make  entries  in  roll  book  in  pencil  only. 

Superintendent  Cole,  of  Denver,  offers  the  following 
helpful  suggestions  to  substitutes : 

See  the  principal  upon  arrival  at  the  building  and  before 
leaving  at  the  close  of  the  session.  Register  your  name, 
address,  and  telephone  number  in  the  office  of  the  building. 
Be  in  the  room  at  8 :  40  and  1:15.  Write  your  name  on  the 
blackboard  so  pupils  may  learn  it.  Familiarize  yourself  as 
soon  as  possible  with  the  course  of  study.  Keep  an  accu- 
rate account  of  attendance  on  a  separate  sheet,  but  do  not 
make  entries  in  the  record  book  or  on  the  monthly  report 
sheet,  until  so  directed  by  the  principal. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        145 

Do  not  have  the  pupil  use  the  regular  teacher's  spelling 
and  penmanship  paper.  Use  fresh  sheets  for  your  day's 
lessons.  Do  not  make  entries  in  notebooks,  etc.  Super- 
vise all  written  work  and  inspect  it.  Do  not  give  music, 
sewing,  or  drawing  lessons,  unless  so  directed  by  the  princi- 
pal. After  three  days'  absence,  or  less  in  case  of  throat 
trouble,  pupils  must  present  health  certificates  from  the  board 
of  health  or  the  family  physician.  Consult  the  principal 
about  suspicious  cases  of  absence.  In  case  of  illness  or  other 
emergency,  notify  the  principal.  Do  not  dismiss  pupils 
before  the  close  of  the  session,  except  through  the  office. 
Detain  no  pupil  at  recess,  at  noon,  or  later  than  3 :  50. 
Do  not  alter  or  erase  any  work  which  has  been  placed 
on  the  blackboard  for  special  purposes,  such  as  honor 
lists,  lesson  plans,  programs,  etc.  Do  not  change  pupils' 
seats,  nor  alter  room  chart.  Avoid  criticism  of  regular 
teacher  and  her  work.  Do  not  give  out  books  from  the 
lockers.  Be  careful  about  giving  out  pens,  pencils,  etc. 
Watch  the  waste  paper,  and  the  frequent  trips  to  the 
waste-paper  basket;  note  writing,  leaving  the  room  too 
often,  or  without  permission;  staying  out  too  long;  mis- 
use of  crayon;  discreditable  blackboard  work;  abuse  of 
textbooks,  untidy  floors,  desks,  tables,  locker-tops,  window 
sills,  etc. 

Should  you  need  the  principal's  help  in  case  of  discipline, 
it  may  be  welL  toot  to  send  the  offender  at  once  to  the  office ; 
but  to  send  an  explanatory  note  to  the  principal  by  some  other 
pupil.  Corporal  punishment,  shaking  included,  having  pupils 
stand  on  the  floor  in  hall  or  room,  or  sending  pupils  home 
without  consulting  the  principal,  are  absolutely  forbidden. 
Keep  hands  off  the  children. 


146     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Be  careful  of  personal  carriage.  It  is  not  unimportant 
as  to  where,  when,  or  how  you  sit  or  stand. 

Watch  the  temperature  and  air  of  your  room.  If  neces- 
sary, send  word  to  the  principal  with  regard  to  ventilation. 
Do  not  open  windows  and  doors  when  fans  are  running, 
without  order  from  the  principal.  Leave  the  room  in  per- 
fect order,  and  a  note  concerning  your  day's  experience  for 
the  benefit  of  the  regular  teacher. 

..  Special  teachers.  In  most  systems  there  is  a 
class  of  teachers  known  as  "  special  teachers/'  those, 
that  is,  who  have  charge  of  so-called  special  subjects, 
such  as  music,  drawing,  sewing,  shop  work,  and  so 
on.  Their  status  is  usually  somewhere  between  that 
of  a  class  teacher  and  a  supervisor;  they  visit 
classes,  inspect  the  work  and  advise  the  teachers  in 
regard  to  it,  and  give  model  lessons  to  enable  the 
regular  class  teachers,  ordinarily  not  specially 
trained  in  the  subject,  to  teach  it  with  some  degree 
of  skill.1 

The  duties  of  the  principal  toward  these  special 
teachers  are  chiefly  (1)  to  arrange  for  cheerful  and 
effective  cooperation  between  them  and  the  class 

1  A  number  of  cities  prescribe  that  regular  teachers  shall  not  be 
absent  from  the  room  during  the  visit  of  a  special  teacher,  but  shall 
give  all  possible  assistance,  with  the  further  provision,  not  highly 
complimentary  to  the  special  teachers,  that  they  shall  "preserve 
order  and  discipline." 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  TEACHERS        147 

teachers ;  (2)  to  curb  the  specialist  in  her  natural 
tendency  to  overdo  her  own  specialty;  and  (3)  to 
see  that  the  time  schedules  are  respected  as  regards 
special  subjects. 

Most  special  teachers  are  artists  of  one  sort  or 
another,  and  often  have  the  artist's  temperamental 
distaste  for  mathematical  limitations  and  systematic 
observance  of  schedules.  The  principal  will  make 
certain  that  all  the  special  subjects  are  given  their 
full  time  and  that  the  time  allotted  to  them  is 
effectively  devoted  to  the  subjects ;  but  he  must  see, 
too,  that  the  other  subjects  of  the  curriculum,  those 
which  have  no  special  staff  of  enthusiasts  to  exploit 
them,  do  not  suffer  loss  of  time  at  their  hands. 

Assistants.  In  schools  having  a  large  number 
of  pupils,  the  principal  is  usually  given  one  or  more 
assistants  who  have  no  classroom  duties.  These 
may  be  clerical  assistants  or  administrative 
assistants. 

Clerical  assistants.  If  the  principal's  assistant  is 
a  clerk,  licensed  to  perform  clerical  work  only,  and 
paid  on  that  basis,  her  duties  must  be  clearly  under- 
stood to  include  nothing  of  a  supervisory  char- 
acter. She  must  not  be  permitted  either  deliberately 
or  unconsciously  to  become  a  pedagogic  adviser 


148     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

of  the  teachers.  If  a  principal  is  neglectful,  it  is 
very  easy  for  the  clerk,  even  unwittingly,  to  drift 
into  a  position  where  she  is  directing  teachers. 
Such  a  state  of  affairs  is  wrong  to  the  teachers  and 
the  pupils. 

Administrative  assistants.  If,  however,  the  as- 
sistant is  licensed  as  an  administrative  assistant 
and  classed  as  a  supervisory  expert,  then  she  has  a 
very  different  relation  to  principal  and  to  teachers. 
In  some  cities  such  an  assistant  has  clearly  denned 
duties;  in  others,  her  duties  are  by  assignment  of 
the  principal,  subject  to  the  approval  of  his  su- 
periors. Where  the  rules  do  not  provide  in  detail 
for  the  service  to  be  rendered  by  the  assistant  prin- 
cipal, the  principal  himself  should  make  careful 
assignment  of  such  duties  and  have  it  clearly  under- 
stood by  her  and  by  the  teachers  what  her  respon- 
sibilities are.  If  the  principal  has  entire  freedom 
in  the  delegation  of  part  of  his  own  duties  to  the 
assistant,  he  has  a  choice  between  two  methods  of 
assignment,  a  horizontal  or  a  vertical,  or  he  may 
combine  the  two  methods. 

a.  Horizontal  supervision.  By  a  horizontal  as- 
signment the  principal  divides  the  supervisory  work 
horizontally,   across  the  school,  by  grades  or  by 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        149 

floors  of  the  building.1  The  advantages  are: 
1.  Assistants  of  a  certain  temperament  like  it, 
possibly  thinking  it  easier ;  and  some  are  not  quali- 
fied to  supervise  higher-grade  work:  2.  It  gives 
each  teacher  fewer  supervisors  to  please.  3.  It 
leads  to  good  correlation  in  each  grade.  4.  Re- 
sponsibility seems  more  fixed  and  definite. 

b.  Vertical  supervision.  By  a  vertical  assign- 
ment the  principal  divides  the  work  vertically  by 
subjects.2  The  advantages  are  :  1.  It  adds  dignity 
to  the  position  of  assistant,  and  tends  to  encourage 
her  personal  growth,  particularly  if  the  assignment 
is  occasionally  changed.  2.  It  gives  teachers  the 
advantage  of  a  variety  of  help  and  a  chance  of  a 
more  equitable  rating,  assuming  that  the  principal 
rates  only  after  consulting  with  his  assistant.  3.  It 
gives  the  principal  the  benefit  of  counsel.  His 
assistant  is  probably  especially  well  qualified  along 

1  For  example,  a  division  of  work  horizontally  might  give  his 
assistant  grades  I-V  and  himself  grades  VI-VTII.  Or  if  the 
school  occupied  a  four-story  building,  his  assistant  might  have  the 
lower  two  floors  and  he  the  upper  two,  regardless  of  the  grades  that 
came  in  such  a  division. 

2  A  vertical  division  might  be  made  as  follows :  Principal  — 
mathematics,  history,  nature,  science,  drawing,  discipline, 
throughout  the  entire  school;  assistant  —  English,  geography, 
penmanship,  music,  lateness,  supplies. 


ISO  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

certain  lines,  and  particularly  if  these  are  the  lines 
she  supervises,  her  value  to  the  principal  as  a 
counselor  is  enhanced.  4.  It  understudies  the  prin- 
cipal so  that  in  his  absence  some  one  competent 
temporarily  to  perform  his  duties  becomes  the 
acting  head.  5.  It  secures  proper  development  of 
each  subject  of  the  curriculum  from  grade  to  grade. 
6.  It  aids  school  discipline,  in  that  the  pupils  are 
discouraged  from  supposing  that  there  may  be  one 
kind  of  deportment  when  the  principal  is  in  the 
building,  and  another  kind  when  he  is  not.  7.  It 
gives  the  principal  a  better  opportunity  to  know  all 
his  teachers;  particularly  is  he  better  able  to  rate 
them  by  direct  personal  knowledge. 

Summary.  The  principal  can  conduct  his  school 
well  only  through  good  teachers.  Hence  he  must 
make  every  effort  to  secure  the  best  teachers  avail- 
able and  then  study  their  individualities  so  as  to 
assign  them  most  effectively  to  classes  and  subjects. 
The  principal  must  train  his  inexperienced  teachers, 
encourage  the  faithful,  prod  the  neglectful,  and 
minimize  the  damage  of  the  unreformable.  He 
must  respect  the  administrative  headship  of  his 
teachers  in  their  several  classrooms ;  instruct  them 
by  means  of  orders  or  suggestions,  distinctly  dif- 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  TEACHERS        151 

ferentiated,  given  in  writing,  or  through  individual 
or  group  conference;  and  criticize  them  frankly, 
judicially,  courteously,  firmly.  He  will  serve  the 
teachers  in  their  service  to  pupils  (1)  by  mapping 
out  the  work  to  be  done  in  accordance  with 
proper  time  schedules  and  requiring  proper  records 
of  plans  and  progress;  and  (2)  by  securing  co- 
ordination and  correlation,  providing  devices  for 
the  systematic  commendation  and  condemnation 
of  pupils,  and  giving  model  lessons  or  having 
them  given.  In  rating  his  teachers  the  principal 
will  be  guided  both  by  the  general  impression  he 
gains  of  each  teacher's  work  and  by  formal  inspec- 
tion of  classroom  conditions.  Substitute  teachers 
must  be  considerably  assisted;  special  teachers 
must  be  brought  into  effective  cooperation  with 
the  class  teachers ;  clerical  assistants  must  be  kept 
to  the  exercise  of  clerical  functions;  and  admin- 
istrative assistants  must  be  wisely  assigned,  either 
to  horizontal  or  to  vertical  supervision. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    PRINCIPAL    AND    THE    PUPILS  —  THE    MATERIAL 
EQUIPMENT 

Responsibility  for  material  conditions.  Before 
considering  the  responsibility  of  the  principal  for  the 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  upbuilding  of  his  pupils, 
attention  must  be  given  to  the  material  side  of  the 
school.  By  the  school  is  meant,  of  course,  the 
organization  of  pupils  and  teachers ;  but  in  modern 
practice  the  school  is  housed  in  a  special  building 
and  environed  with  material  aids  to  instruction  and 
learning.  Occasionally  a  principal  is  concerned  with 
his  school  from  the  time  that  plans  are  first  made  for 
its  building ;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  he  is 
assigned  to  the  administration  of  an  organization 
already  occupying  a  building,  for  the  design  and 
original  equipment  of  which  he  is  in  no  way  re- 
sponsible. In  either  case,  given  the  school  plant, 
he  is  directly  responsible  for  its  care  and  maintenance. 
Hence  he  should  know  what  good  equipment  is,  so 
that  at  least  he  may  intelligently  advocate  im- 

152 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  153 

provements  and  extensions.  Again,  "  Where  we 
are  perforce  obliged  to  teach  in  conditions  not  ideal, 
we  should  be  all  the  more  careful  to  see  that  every 
favoring  condition  possible  be  given  the  children.' ' x 
The  principal  is  responsible,  too,  for  proper  super- 
vision over  all  materials  used  in  the  school.  This 
chapter,  then,  will  consider  very  briefly:  (1)  The 
School  Building,  (2)  Heating  and  Ventilation, 
(3)  Supplies,  and  (4)  Decoration. 

1.  The  school  building.  The  general  subject  of 
school  buildings  and  schoolrooms  has  been  so  fully 
treated  in  educational  literature  2  as  to  make  super- 

1  Stuart  H.  Rowe,  The  Physical  Nature  jj  Me  Child ,  p.  12. 

2  For  example,  Edward  R.  Shaw,  School  Hygiene;  Fletcher  B. 
Dresslar,  School  Hygiene;  W.  E.  Barry,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School- 
room; J.  A.  Moore,  The  School  House,  its  Heating  and  Ventilation; 
Severance  Burrage  and  Henry  Turner  Bailey,  School  Sanitation  and 
Decoration;  W.  F.  Briggs,  Modern  American  School  Buildings; 
W.  G.  Bruce,  School  Architecture;  A.  C.  Ellis  and  H.  Kuehne, 
School  Buildings;  W.  T.  Mills,  American  School  Building  Standards; 
E.  M.  Wheelwright,  School  Architecture. 

A  typical  building  requirement  is  that  of  Syracuse :  "All  such 
school  buildings  shall  have  at  least  two  separate  and  distinct 
stairways  located  as  far  remote  from  each  other  as  practicable. 
All  stairs,  stairways,  and  stair  halls  shall  be  constructed  of  abso- 
lutely fireproof  material.  All  stairways  and  stair  halls  shall  be 
enclosed  on  all  sides  with  walls  of  solid  masonry,  self  supported 
and  carried  from  the  foundations.  All  doorways  opening  therein 
shall  be  protected  by  fire  doors  and  all  window  openings,  except 


154     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

fluous  any  detailed  presentation  of  the  subject  here. 
One  point  especially  must  be  brought  out,  however, 
in  any  current  discussion  of  the  subject;  namely, 
that  the  development  of  the  modern  three-story  or 
four-story  building  with  its  scores  of  rooms  has  been 
accompanied  by  a  demand  for  many  other  features 
than  classrooms.  Assembly  rooms,  gymnasiums, 
workshops,  baths,  kindergartens,  science  rooms,  and 
music  rooms,  are  coming  to  be  regarded  as  universal 
necessities  rather  than  exceptional  luxuries. 

The  ideal  assembly  room  is  a  room  distinctly  designed 
for  the  purpose  and  reserved  for  general  assemblies  of 
pupils.  It  has  an  ample  number  of  exits,  a  sufficient 
supply  of  light  from  windows  properly  placed,  and  wall 
surfaces  which  lend  themselves  to  artistic  treatment. 
It  is  furnished  with  seats  arranged  so  that  not  more 
than  four  or  five  pupils  occupy  a  single  bench  (individual 
seats  are  still  better),  and  so  that  ample  aisles  are  pro- 
vided. It  is  further  equipped  with  platform,  reading 
desk,  and  piano.    With  the  growing  tendency  to  use  the 

from  the  outside,  shall  have  fireproof  or  wired  glass  set  in  metal- 
lic frames.  All  halls,  doors,  stairways,  seats,  passageways  and 
aisles,  and  all  lighting  and  heating  appliances  and  apparatus  shall 
be  so  arranged  as  to  facilitate  egress  in  case  of  fire  or  accident,  and 
to  afford  the  requisite  and  proper  accommodations  for  public 
protection  in  so  far  as  practicable,  and  shall  be  improved  so  as 
to  comply  with  the  foregoing  requirements."  - 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  155 

auditorium  more  constantly  throughout  the  day,  for 
study  and  for  other  group  activities,  there  has  come  an 
increased  use  of  seats  with  tablet  arms  which  serve  as 
desks  sufficiently  well  for  writing  exercises.  The  in- 
creased use  of  the  auditorium  has  been  brought  about  in 
part  by  the  necessity  of  providing  for  a  number  of  pupils 
in  excess  of  normal  accommodation,  and  the  consequent 
development  of  duplicate-school  organizations.  Another 
factor  in  modifying  the  character  of  the  auditorium  is  the 
growing  use  of  the  building  for  community  activities, 
community  council  meetings,  political  and  patriotic 
exercises,  recreation  centers,  etc. 

The  gymnasium  occupies  the  space  of  at  least  two  class- 
rooms, and  is  furnished  with  the  usual  heavy  apparatus, 
together  with  racks  containing  the  light  individual 
apparatus,  dumb-bells,  clubs,  wands,  hoops,  etc. 

Workshops  and  cooking  rooms  are  usually  fitted  for 
classes  or  sections  of  between  sixteen  and  twenty-eight, 
and  on  this  basis  require  at  least  half  as  much  more  space 
than  is  usually  allotted  to  a  regular  classroom. 

The  kindergarten  of  not  more  than  forty  pupils  re- 
quires a  room  the  size  of  a  regular  classroom,  and  there 
is  no  limit  to  the  amount  of  artistic  furnishing  which  may 
be  devoted  to  it. 

Regular  classrooms.  Probably  the  greatest  need 
for  improvement  is  in  the  design  and  equipment 
of  the  regular  classroom.  In  certain  cities  kinder- 
garten rooms  are  furnished  in  hard  wood  and  plate 


156  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

or  leaded  glass,  with  open  fireplaces,  engravings, 
and  many  other  luxurious  appointments,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  traditional  kindergarten  equipment. 
When  the  taxpayers  are  ready  to  spend  on  the 
furnishing  of  the  regular  classrooms  as  much  as 
they  now  spend,  in  some  places,  on  the  kinder- 
garten rooms,  the  administrators  of  their  educa- 
tional money  will  be  able  to  provide  a  class-indi- 
vidual instruction  that  comes  far  nearer  our  ideals 
than  anything  yet  provided.  The  development  of  a 
profitable  technique  of  individual  and  group  instruc- 
tion will  be  greatly  hastened  by  the  development  of 
a  material  equipment  for  individual  and  small-group 
instruction. 

The  possibilities  of  such  equipment  can  only  be  hinted 
at :  a  room  50  per  cent  larger  than  our  present  average 
classroom;  a  class  register  limited  to  forty,  perhaps 
thirty,  pupils ;  adjustable  and  movable  seats  and  desks ; 
a  place  devoted  to  molding  boards ;  a  shop  for  making 
models,  maps,  charts,  and  other  devices ;  a  corner  for  a 
museum,  a  herbarium,  a  reference  library,  etc. 

Vandalism.  The  principal  has  the  duty  of  pro- 
tecting the  building  against  vandalism.  Pupils 
must  be  trained  to  respect  every  part  of  the  school 
building  and  equipment.    Any  defacement  should 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  157 

be  repaired  as  speedily  as  possible,  so  as  to  remove 
suggestion  from  other  pupils.  Every  effort  should 
be  made  to  discover  offenders  and  they  should  be 
dealt  with  in  such  a  way  as  to  impress  upon  them 
the  seriousness  of  the  offense  as  well  as  to  secure 
reparation.1 

2.  Heating  and  ventilation.  A  prime  necessity 
for  the  proper  conduct  of  school  activities  is  that 
pupils  work  under  favorable  conditions  as  to  tem- 
perature and  ventilation. 

Heating.  When  the  temperature  of  the  outside 
air  falls  below  the  normal  requirement  of  68°-7o°  F., 
some  artificial  means  of  maintaining  such  a  normal 

1  The  Syracuse  provision  is  comprehensive:  "No  pupil  shall 
mark,  cut,  scratch,  chalk  or  otherwise  disfigure  or  injure  any 
portion  of  a  school  building  or  anything  connected  therewith.  He 
shall  not  use  tobacco  in  any  form  at  or  going  to  or  from  school,  use 
any  profane  or  indecent  language,  throw  stones  or  other  missiles, 
annoy  or  maltreat  others,  nor  do  anything  that  may  disturb  the 
school  or  its  neighborhood.  Any  pupil  materially  injuring, 
destroying  or  losing  any  school  supply  shall  replace  or  pay  for  the 
same.  Any  damage  done  to  a  school  building  or  any  of  its  equip- 
ments or  surroundings  such  as  trees,  shrubbery,  flowers,  fences, 
outbuildings,  etc.,  must  be  repaired  at  the  expense  of  the  offender, 
and  in  case  of  his  refusal  or  neglect  to  do  so,  he  may  be  suspended 
from  the  school.  The  money  for  injuries  to  property  shall  be  pay- 
able by  the  parent  of  the  child  to  the  principal  of  the  school,  who 
shall  attend  to  the  repairing  of  the  property."  —  64. 


158     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

condition  inside  the  school  must  be  resorted  to. 
The  present  practice,  in  replacing  old  systems  and 
in  installing  new  ones,  seems  to  be  to  use  a  steam- 
heating  plant,  the  heated  coils  usually  being  placed 
within  the  room  to  be  heated.  This  involves  the 
use  of  radiators,  with  valves  to  regulate  the  inflow 
and  outflow  of  steam. 

In  most  modern  systems  this  regulation,  either 
as  to  the  entire  plant  or  as  to  the  radiators  in  each 
room,  or  both,  is  automatically  secured  by  means  of 
thermostats,  which  are  capable  of  maintaining  the 
temperature  of  a  classroom  with  a  variation  of  not 
more  than  two  degrees  from  standard. 

One  form  of  thermostat,  placed  on  a  wall  at  a  conven- 
ient height,  has  direct  connection  by  compressed  air  or 
other  means  of  control  with  the  valve  regulating  the  in- 
flow of  steam.  When  the  temperature  of  the  air  falls 
below  normal,  the  mechanism  releases  the  control  and 
the  valve  is  opened,  permitting  the  flow  of  steam  into  the 
radiator,  thus  heating  the  room.  Contrariwise,  when 
the  temperature  rises  materially  above  the  normal,  the 
mechanism  initiates  the  control,  and  the  valve  is  closed. 
There  are  various  other  forms.  If  there  is  no  auto- 
matic control  of  some  sort,  the  valves  must  be  regu- 
lated by  hand,  requiring  constant  attention  by  teacher 
or  janitor. 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  159 

Ventilation.  The  heating  of  the  air  is  only  part 
of  the  requirement;  there  must  be  a  constant 
replacement  of  old  air  with  new,  i.e.  ventilation. 
This  means  that  (a)  there  must  be  a  sufficient 
supply;  (b)  it  must  be  maintained  at  the  normal 
temperature;  (c)  it  must  be  humid  to  about  55 
per  cent  of  saturation ;  and  (d)  it  must  be  of  proper 
purity. 

(a)  The  two  methods  of  maintaining  circulation, 
vacuum  and  plenum,  are  the  reverse  of  each  other  in 
action.  In  the  former,  the  air  is  drawn  or  sucked  out  of 
the  room ;  in  the  latter,  it  is  pushed  or  forced  into  the 
room.  The  modern  plant  secures  circulation  by  means 
of  a  fan,  the  operation  of  which  at  a  speed  of  from  120  to 
250  revolutions  per  minute  draws  or  forces  the  air  through 
the  ducts  and  into  and  in  the  classrooms.  The  speed  of 
the  air  in  its  circulation  about  the  room  must  not  be  too 
great,  otherwise  a  draft  is  created  which  may  discomfort 
or  endanger  the  pupils.  Each  pupil  should  have  30 
cubic  feet  per  minute  of  fresh  air.1 

1  Dresslar,  School  Hygiene,  in  an  extended  discussion  of  venti- 
lation, places  the  requirement  at  2000  cubic  feet  per  hour  for 
primary  pupils,  2500  cubic  feet  for  upper-grade  pupils,  and  3000 
cubic  feet  for  high-school  pupils.  "Of  course,"  he  reminds  us, 
"pupils  will  not  perish  if  they  get  less  than  these  estimates,  but 
they  will  not  be  able  to  do  their  work  easily  and  effectively,  without 
fatigue  and  lassitude,  unless  they  are  furnished  with  approximately 
these  amounts."  —  page  136, 


160     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

For  a  class  of  fifty,  then,  1500  cubic  feet  will  be  needed. 
It  has  been  found  that  a  speed  greater  than  400  feet  per 
minute  is  a  draft.  Hence,  to  bring  1500  cubic  feet  per 
minute  into  a  room  at  a  speed  of  400  feet,  requires  an 
inlet  —  and  of  course,  too,  an  outlet  —  whose  area  is  ap- 
proximately 4  square  feet.  The  best  position  for  these 
openings  seems  to  be,  for  the  inlet,  about  8  feet  above  the 
floor,  and  for  the  outlet,  about  1  foot  above,  with  the 
two  openings  in  the  same  wall  but  not  directly  in  the 
same  vertical  line. 

(b)  By  passing  the  air  over  steam  coils  before  it  enters 
the  ducts,  the  normal  temperature  is  secured ;  (c)  by 
passing  it  over  water  pans  or  through  a  screen  kept  con- 
stantly moist,  proper  humidity  is  established ;  and  (d)  by 
taking  it  from  out  of  doors  at  a  distance  from  the  surface 
and  screening  it  to  keep  out  flying  papers,  leaves,  etc., 
the  supply  is  kept  fairly  pure.1 

3.   Supplies.     Whether  the  principal  has  much 

or  little  to  do  with  textbooks  and  other  materials 

used  by  pupils  depends  upon  whether  or  not  his  city 

1  See  note  in  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  vol. 
1,  p.  283,  calling  attention  to  "the  investigations  of  the  last  half 
dozen  years"  which  have  discredited  "the  theory  upon  which 
existing  systems  and  standards  of  ventilation  are  founded."  "It 
is  improbable  that  present  standards  as  to  quantity  of  air  to  be 
introduced  into  a  schoolroom  will  hold."  "We  may  discover  that 
frequent  small  variations  in  temperature  —  up  and  down  —  in  a 
mildly  'churning'  body  of  air  will  do  much  to  relieve  the  depressing 
effects  of  crowding  and  'bad  air.' " 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  161 

has  a  free-book  system.  If  it  has,  then  the  requisi- 
tioning of  supplies  usually  within  a  definite  appro- 
priation becomes  one  of  his  important  duties;  if 
not,  his  responsibility  is  limited  to  seeing  that  his 
pupils  supply  themselves  with  the  proper  materials 
and  that  the  few  indigent  pupils  are  supplied  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  usually  made  for 
them. 

In  either  case  there  is  generally  a  restriction  as 
to  the  particular  textbooks  and  supplies  which 
may  be  used  in  the  schools.  Some  cities  have  what 
is  known  as  a  "  closed  "  list,  where,  for  instance, 
only  one  title  for  the  study  of  geography  in  each 
grade  is  permitted.  Other  cities  have  an  "  open  " 
list,  including  a  large  number  of  titles  for  each  sub- 
ject in  each  grade.  Upon  the  principal  is  imposed 
the  duty  not  only  of  requisitioning  the  proper 
quantities  of  books  but  also  of  choosing  which 
books  shall  be  used  in  their  respective  schools. 

Whatever  the  conditions,  the  principal  should 
know  good  books  and  good  stationery,  just  as 
he  should  know  good  buildings.  If  the  list  is  a 
" closed' '  one,  it  is  not  closed  forever;  and  the 
principal  should,  at  least  as  a  general  duty,  in- 
fluence the  retention  of  good  books  and  the  rejec- 


162     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

tion  of  poor  ones.  It  is  assumed,  therefore,  that 
the  principal  is  concerned  with  (a)  the  selection  of 
supplies,  (b)  the  requisitioning  of  supplies,  and 
(c)  the  care  of  supplies. 

a.  The  selection  of  supplies.  The  selection  of 
other  supplies  is  usually  not  a  very  perplexing 
problem,  but  in  choosing  textbooks  the  principal 
must  exercise  particular  discretion.  He  will  not 
depend  entirely  upon  his  own  judgment,  but  will 
elicit  the  cooperation  of  his  teachers  in  making  his 
selections.1 

The  principal  considerations  in  the  selection  of  a  text- 
book are : 

(i)  Its  mechanical  make-up. 

Its  general  appearance  should  be  considered.  Other 
things  being  equal,  pupils  should  have  placed  before"them 
books  which  are  good  examples  of  the  bookmaker's  art, 
rather  than  those  of  inferior,  uninstructive,  or  unattrac- 
tive appearance. 

The  bindings  should  be  substantial  and  appropriate. 
It  is  economy  to  buy  a  book  that  is  well  bound.  Par- 
ticularly, it  is  an  injury  to  the  pupil  to  study  a  book  so 
put  together  that  he  cannot  use  it  without  straining  his 
eyes  in  the  effort  to  read  the  print  along  the  inside 
margins. 

1  In  Albany  the  form  for  principal's  rating  of  teachers  includes 
the  item  "Familiarity  with  texts  in  use." 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  163 

The  paper,  in  quality  and  tone,  should  contribute  to 
the  pupil's  comfort ;  it  should  be  of  good  quality,  non- 
transparent,  dull  finish,  and  not  embossed  by  type. 

The  type  should  be  of  simple  style  and  sufficient  size 
and  widely  leaded.  The  size,  of  course,  decreases  with 
the  maturity  of  the  pupil.  "If  every  book,  no  matter 
what  its  merits,  were  rejected  if  its  type  were  too  small, 
the  makers  of  such  books  would  very  quickly  bring  out 
new  editions  with  a  proper  size  of  type."  ! 

The  illustrations  should  be  clear-cut,  unambiguous, 
artistic,  and  accurate. 

(2)  The  text. 

The  vocabulary  and  style  should  be  appropriate  to  the 
work  in  hand  for  the  pupils  of  the  grade. 

The  presentation  of  the  subject  matter  should  be  in 
accordance  with  good  pedagogic  methods. 

The  text  should  be  adequately  supplemented  and  re- 
enforced  by  illustrations,  maps,  diagrams,  etc.,  such  as 
really  illustrate  and  explain. 

b.  The  requisitioning  of  supplies.  The  principal 
is  usually  given  a  definite  appropriation  for  supplies 
of  all  kinds  for  the  fiscal  year.  He  is  expected  to 
exercise  care  and  economy  in  its  expenditure,  and 
he  will  do  well,  at  the  outset  of  the  year,  to  sub- 
divide his  allowance,  allotting  definite  amounts  for 
the  purchase  of  different  classes  of  material.  He 
1  Shaw,  School  Hygiene,  p.  177. 


164     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

is  more  likely,  in  this  way,  to  order  supplies  judi- 
ciously and  in  proportion  to  the  different  activities 
of  the  school.1 

1  The  following  are  suggestions  which  were  offered  by  District 
Superintendent  I.  E.  Goldwasser,  of  New  York  City,  to  his 
principals : 

"Hold  conferences  with  grade  teachers  and  with  assistants 
with  a  view  to  determining  how  many  written  exercises  should  be 
taken  up  in  the  various  subjects  or  division  of  subjects  in  the 
course  of  each  week,  for  example,  how  many  written  arith- 
metic lessons ;  spelling  lessons ;  dictation  exercises ;  compositions ; 
theme- writing  in  history,  geography,  etc. ;  drawings ;  penmanship 
exercises.  Be  sure  that  in  establishing  this  norm  there  is  no 
curtailing  of  the  right  of  the  teacher  to  vary  her  method  as  the 
need  arises. 

"Determine  what  quality  and  kind  of  paper  will  be  best  suited 
to  each  exercise  in  question. 

"Multiply  the  number  of  exercises  by  the  average  register  of 
the  class,  add  fifteen  or  twenty  per  cent  for  wastage  and  vari- 
ance in  register,  and  establish  the  number  thus  arrived  at  as 
the  average  to  be  furnished  to  the  teacher  in  the  course  of  the 
term. 

"Adopt  a  form  of  order  slip  which  will  show  at  a  glance  the 
total  amount  of  supplies  under  each  item  that  has  been  used  by 
the  teacher  since  the  beginning  of  the  term. 

"A  similar  procedure  should  be  followed  with  pencils,  pen- 
holders, rulers,  etc. 

"Principals  should  establish  a  division  of  the  total  amount  of 
money  allowed  per  capita  per  year  so  that  the  proportion  used  for 
textbooks,  for  stationery,  and  for  other  purposes  shall  be  fairly 
fixed." 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  165 

The  following  is  offered  as  a  suggestive  scheme  to  be 
used  as  the  basis  of  allotment :  * 

I.  Textbooks: 

Grade  by  grade  and  subject  by  subject,  as  required 
by  the  curriculum. 

II.   General  Supplies : 

a.  Stationery :  blank  books,  pads,  envelopes,  .  .  . 

b.  Writing  materials :  pens,  penholders,  pencils,  ink, 

chalk,  .  .  . 

c.  Records :  books,  blanks,  cards,  .  .  . 

d.  Miscellaneous:      book  covers,  mucilage,  rulers, 

rubbers,  pointers,  paper  fasteners,  .  .  . 

III.  Special  Supplies : 

a.  Drawing :    paper,  crayons,  colors,  models,  paste, 

compasses,  .  .  . 

b.  Cooking :  utensils,  chinaware,  cutlery,  .  .  . 

c.  Sewing :    needles,  scissors,  thread,  gingham,  .  .  . 

d.  Carpentry :  tools,  wood,  screws,  nails,  paint,  .  .  . 

e.  Kindergarten:    gifts,  yarn,  paste,  needles,  weav- 

ing materials,  .  .  . 

IV.  Apparatus : 

a.  Science:    chemicals,  physical  apparatus,  .  .  . 

b.  Gymnastic :  bells,  clubs,  wands,  .  .  . 

c.  General :  globes,  maps,  charts,  stereoscopes,  .  .  . 

1  The  entire  appropriation  is  generally  based  upon  the  number  of 
pupils  of  each  grade.  It  might  properly  consider  another  factor, 
viz. :  the  kind  of  pupils  as  to  their  home  environment,  etc.,  as  in 
some  districts  and  under  certain  conditions,  books  are  subjected 
to  a  "wear  and  tear"  that  is  not  normal  to  another  district  or 
condition. 


166     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

This  will,  of  course,  be  modified  by  local  and  temporary 
conditions,  such  as  the  necessity  for  providing  for  newly 
formed  classes,  for  revisions  of  the  curriculum,  and  the 
like. 

Supplies  used  by  the  janitor  in  cleaning  and  caring 
for  the  building  are  usually  charged  to  a  separate 
account. 

Some  cities  have  a  Library  Fund  against  which  are 
charged  books  which  make  up  Class  Libraries  or  the 
Teachers'  Reference  Library.  If  this  is  not  the  case 
these  items  would  be  interpolated  in  the  foregoing 
scheme  as  subdivisions  under  I. 

c.  The  care  of  supplies.  The  first  consideration 
in  caring  for  supplies  is  to  keep  proper  account  of 
them.  In  some  cities  the  method  of  accounting  is 
prescribed  in  detail;  in  all,  some  method  is  pre- 
supposed, as  is  shown  by  the  regulations  regarding 
requisitions,1  inventories,2  etc. 

As  the  principal  must  give  an  accounting  to  his 
superiors  for  supplies,  so  he  must  require  some  sort 
of  accounting  from  the  teachers  to  whom  he  forwards 

1  "Principals  shall  issue  to  each  room  on  the  written  requisition 
of  the  teacher  thereof  the  textbooks  and  supplies  needed  for  such 
room.  ..."  —  St.  Louis,  39,  vii. 

2  "He  [the  principal]  shall  ...  at  the  end  of  each  school  year 
.  .  .  furnish  an  inventory  of  all  the  books  and  stationery  belonging 
to  the  school."  —  Jersey  City,  Principals,  ix. 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT 


167 


those  supplies.  It  is  an  extreme  method  that 
takes  the  view  that  teachers  know  what  they  need, 
should  be  given  free  access  at  all  times  to  the  stock 
room  and  permitted  to  help  themselves,  thus  leav- 
ing the  principal  nothing  else  to  do  than  to  keep 
the  stock  room  constantly  supplied.  The  other 
extreme  is  to  require  from  the  teachers  a  written 
receipt  in  detail  for  all  supplies  sent  them.  Between 
these  two  extremes  there  can  be  found  some  profit- 
able middle  course,  determined  by  conditions. 

The  following  system  for  the  handling  of  textbooks 
is  submitted : 

When  books  are  sent  from  stock  to  a  class,  a  Charge 
Slip  is  filled  out  and  sent  with  them,  thus : 


To  be  kept  by  the  teacher 

fa*,.  7,  19/9 

To  the  teacher  of 

Class  8  (Z.  M. 

I  Charge  your  Book  Account  with 

/J?  tfrntth  /fat.  o{  U.    £ 
(No.)  (Author)  (Title) 

Your  number  on  hand  was    .    32 

Your  number  now  is     .     .     .   ¥■¥- 

If  this  is  correct,  please  keep  this  half 
of  the  sheet,  and  sign  and  return  the 
other  half. 

Principal 


To  be  sent  to  the  ojfice 

fori,.  7,  19/^ 

Class  8  <Z.  7ft. 

Received  from  Stock 

fi  £f<vyvi£A  /fat.  of  II.    $f. 
(No.)  (Author)  (Title) 

Making  number  now  on  hand  W- 


Teacher 


168     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

The  teacher  acknowledges  the  delivery  of  the  new 
books  by  signing  and  returning  to  the  principal  the  half 
of  the  slip  indicated. 

When  the  teacher  returns  books  to  the  office  as  worn 
out,  or  no  longer  needed,  or  to  replenish  stock,  or 
when,  for  any  other  reason,  she  should  be  charged  with 
fewer  books,  a  Credit  Slip,  printed  on  different  colored 
paper,  is  filled  out  and  signed  by  the  principal ;  and  the 
teacher  returns  the  right-hand  half  as  a  certificate  of  its 
correctness. 


To  be  kept  by  the  teacher 

fan,.  /5,  19/? 
To  the  teacher"of 
Class  8  d.  #7. 
I  Credit  your  Book  Account  with 
5  ^waXA,  flfutt  of  K.  c/. 

(No.)  (Author)  (Title) 

Your  number  on  hand  was    .    Vty 

Your  number  now  is    ...    3<? 

If  this  is  correct,  please  keep  this  half 
of  the  sheet,  and  sign  and  return  the 
other  half. 

Principal 


To  be  sent  to  the  office 

jaw,.  /5,  19/? 

Class  a  <Z.  ?7l. 

Sent  to  Stock 

5  ^yyvMi  /{Lot.  of  %.  o£ 
(No.)  (Author)  (Title) 

Leaving  number  now  on  hand  dtf 


Teacher 


Whenever  a  Charge  Slip  or  a  Credit  Slip  is  issued,  the 
office  half  is  placed  on  file,  and  the  teacher  keeps  her  half 
as  part  of  her  records.  In  both  cases  the  last  previous 
slip  for  the  same  title  is  destroyed.  Hence  both  princi- 
pal and  teacher  have  always  on  hand  a  number  of  slips 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  169 

equal  to  the  number  of  different  titles  of  books  used 
in  that  class ;  and  each  slip  shows  the  present  state  of 
the  account,  together  with  the  figures  of  the  latest 
transaction. 

Books  are  considered  to  be  either  Usable  or  Unusable ; 
they  are  either  current  coin  or  they  are  not;  if  not, 
they  are  to  be  withdrawn  from  circulation.  Teachers 
file,  several  weeks  in  advance,  Unusable  Slips,  like  the 
following : 

&&e.  6,  19/8 
Class  8  0L.  JR. 

I  estimate  that  on fan,.  /$ ,  19/^  about 

___^...of  the— S2 sfynMi /i-loZ.  of  tke,  U.  tf. 

(Number)  (No.  on  hand)     .    (Author)  (Title) 

charged  to  my  Book  Account  will  be  Unusable. 


Teacher 

The  principal's  file  of  these  Unusable  Slips,  together 
with  his  file  of  Charge  and  Credit  slips  and  Stock  Sheet, 
give  him  all  the  data  necessary  for  making  out  a  requisi- 
tion or  inventory.  He  will  find  useful  a  chart  tabulating 
the  figures  of  his  Charge  and  Credit  file  and  his  Stock 
Sheet,  a  form  of  which  is  suggested  in  the  following 
fragment. 


170      THE   MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 


PQ 
00 


U1NOO       N«00 

PQOc/jO  fflCwO 


Si 

Hc/3 


1"^ 


moc/io 


if 

00 


P50«o  mowo 


PQ 
00 


< 
00 


SS8°°  $S£° 

«SOc/iO  ttSOco 


a1 
21 

Htn 


o  * 


o««ino 


III 


ttSOtnO 


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PQ 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  171 

Beyond  accounting  for  supplies,  the  principal 
is  responsible  for  their  proper  care  by  teachers  and 
pupils.1  In  proportion  as  he  holds  teachers  re- 
sponsible, they  in  turn  will  hold  pupils  responsible. 
Each  pupil  upon  receiving  his  books  must  be  re- 
quired to  protect  them  by  an  outside  paper  or  cloth 
cover;  and  to  label  them  with  a  memorandum 
showing  the  name  of  the  pupil,  school,  date,  condi- 
tion of  the  book  when  issued,  etc.2    It  is  necessary 

1  Paterson  prescribes  the  "life"  of  its  schoolbooks,  "to  make 
allowance  for  wear,  tear,  and  loss,"  e.g.  readers,  three  years; 
grammars,  four  years ;  music  books,  five  years ;  etc. 

2  Such  labels  are  usually  supplied  by  the  city  department  of 
education  for  uniform  use.    E.g.: 

RULES  — FREE  TEXTBOOKS 

Property  of  the  Board  of  Education 

Dayton,  Ohio 

. Building 

Name  of  Book No 

Rules  for  the  Care  of  Books 

Rule  1  —  After  approval  by  your  teacher,  write  your  name  in 

proper  place  below. 
Rule  2  —  This  book  must  not  be  marked  with  pencil  or  ink,  and 

it  must  be  kept  clean. 
Rule  3  —  If  a  pupil  loses  or  injures  this  book  he  must  pay  for  it. 

Condition :  if  new  when  issued,  full  cost  price ;  if  good, 

3-4  price ;  if  fair,  1-2  price ;  if  poor,  1-4  price. 
Rule  4  —  This  book  must  not  be  taken  from  the  school  except  by 

permission  of  the  teacher,  for  the  purpose  of  study  at 

home. 


172     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

for  the  principal  each  term  personally  to  examine 
books  to  see  that  this  has  been  done,  or  to  require 
the  teachers  to  file  statements  that  they  have  ex- 
amined the  books  and  found  them  properly  labeled 
and  covered. 

Teachers  may  be  shown  their  relation  to  the 
matter  of  damage  to  supplies  by  a  specific  regulation 
to  this  effect :  "  You  are  responsible  for  the  proper 
care  by  the  pupils  of  books  and  other  school  property. 
Report  promptly  any  cases  of  neglect  which  you 
cannot  adequately  discipline."  How  to  treat  pupils 
who  damage  or  lose  textbooks  or  other  supplies  is 
rarely  a  problem.  If  the  pupil  is  ready  and  willing 
to  make  good  the  damage  or  loss,  the  difficulty 
adjusts  itself.     If  he  does  not  voluntarily  do  so, 

Rule  5  —  This  book  must  be  returned  to  the  teacher  when  the 

pupil  leaves  school. 
If  you  are  wise  you  will  make  good  books  your  friends.    Wise 

people  always  treat  their  friends  well.    Learn  to  love  good 

books. 


When  Loaned 

Teacher's  Name 

Name  op  Pupil 

Date 

Condition  [a] 

(a]  New,  Good,  Fair,  and  Poor  indicate  condition  of  book  when  loaned  to  you. 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  173 

the  specific  rights  and  powers  of  the  principal, 
usually  defined  by  the  rules,  although  varying  in 
different  cities,  are  quite  sufficient  to  cover  the  case. 

Typical  requirements  are : 

Payment.  "If  a  pupil  willfully  injures  or  destroys 
any  book  or  article  of  stationery  belonging  to  the  Board, 
or  if  he  loses  through  negligence  or  carelessness  such 
property  of  the  Board,  his  parents  or  guardians  shall  be 
required  by  the  principal  to  pay  for  the  same."  —  St. 
Louis,  39,  IV. 

Suspension.  "  Pupils  are  required  to  take  proper  care 
of  all  textbooks  and  materials  furnished  by  the  Board 
for  their  use,  and  in  case  any  pupil  shall  have  lost,  de- 
faced, injured,  or  destroyed  any  book  belonging  to  the 
district,  he  shall  be  required  by  the  principal  to  replace 
the  book  or  pay  in  full  for  damages  to  the  same,  and  may 
be  suspended  until  such  damage  has  been  made  good." 
—  Seattle,  XII,  19. 

Fine.  "  Pupils  shall  be  held  to  strict  account  for  proper 
care  of  books  and  supplies.  Books  must  be  kept  clean 
and  not  marked  with  pencil  or  ink,  or  otherwise  defaced. 
Fine  may  be  imposed  by  the  principal  in  accordance  with 
general  direction  from  the  Superintendent's  office."  — 
Minneapolis,  V,  9. 

Replacement.  "If  a  pupil  needlessly  injures  or  loses  a 
school  book,  his  parents  or  guardian  shall,  on  the  demand 
of  the  principal,  furnish  a  new  book  in  its  place."  —  New 
Haven,  251. 


174     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Richmond  uses  the  following  form  to  parents :] 

I  find  on  examination  of  the  books  loaned  to  your 

that  the  following  have  been  damaged  beyond  reasonable 
wear  and  tear. 

The  rules  of  the  School  Board  require  that  such  damage 

be  made  good.    The  damage  in  this  case  amounts  to  $ 

Please  give  this  matter    your  immediate    attention    and 
oblige, 

Yours  very  respectfully, 
$ ,  Principal. 

4.  Decoration.  Although  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  reduce  to  any  mathematical  ratio  the  extent  to 
which  pupils  are  affected  by  the  quality  of  their 
material  environment,  it  is  certain  that  they  are 
distinctly  influenced  by  their  surroundings.  Hence 
it  becomes  a  duty  of  the  school  to  provide  some- 
thing more  than  mere  "  housing."  Even  the  most 
wretched  of  schoolrooms  admits  of  some  decorative 
treatment  which  reduces  the  ill  effects  of  the  cheer- 
less atmosphere.1  Even  cleanliness  and  order  con- 
stitute an  essential  foundation  and  beginning  in 
decoration. 

1  A  look-out  must  be  kept  to  prevent  such  inconsistencies  as 
flowers  in  milk  bottles  and  coffeepots.  Yet,  cans  and  bottles  may 
often  be  successfully  camouflaged  by  means  of  a  strip  of  cartridge 
paper  and  paste  or  paper  fasteners.  A  simple  class  exercise  will 
supply  a  border  of  straight  line  or  mass  design. 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT 


175 


Mr.  Edward  Mandel,  principal,  Public  School  188  B, 
Manhattan,  New  York,  uses  the  following  form : 

GRADE TEACHER 

ROOM 

REPORT  OF  CONDITION  OF  CLASSROOM 

Have  you  attended  to  the  following  details?     Please  write 

"Yes"  or  "No"  after  each  item. 

DATES 


i.  Room  Decorations. 

a.  Pupils'  Work. 

b.  Pictures. 

c.  Plants. 

2.  Closets  in  Order. 

3.  Teacher's  Desk  Tidy. 

a.  Records  (U.  R.  Drawer). 

b.  Lesson  Plans  (U.R.  Drawer). 

c.  All  Syllabi. 

4.  Blackboards. 

a.  Rec.  of  Reg.  and  Att. 

b.  Posture  Per  Cent. 

c.  Fire  Signals. 

d.  Exit  Used. 

5.  Library  List  on  Wall. 

6.  Program  on  Wall. 

7.  Up  to  Date. 

a.  Roll  Book. 

b.  Report  Cards. 

c.  Record  Cards. 

d.  Plan  Sheets. 

8.  Pupils'  Books. 

a.  Covered. 

b.  Name  in  Each  Book. 

9.  Pupils'  Desks. 

Free  of  Papers. 


176  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

The  duty  of  the  principal  lies  in  both  directions, 
the  positive  and  the  negative.  He  may  encourage 
teachers,  pupils,  and  parents  in  their  praiseworthy 
efforts  to  decorate  the  schoolrooms;  and  he  may 
restrain  them  in  any  mistaken  zeal  which  finds 
expression  in  the  mediocre,  the  unfit,  or  the  unin- 
spiring.1 

Ten  commandments  for  successful  schoolroom  decora- 
tion given  by  Mr.  Frank  H.  Collins,  director  of  drawing, 
New  York  City,  are : 

1.  Doors  and  cabinet  walls  should  not  be  used  as 
bulletin  boards. 

2.  Do  not  decorate  the  blackboard.  It  should  be 
kept  for  the  purpose  it  is  intended  for. 

3.  Do  not  allow  wall  displays  of  class  work  to  become 
stale.  Change  the  scheme  of  decoration  once  a 
week  if  only  by  changing  one  object. 

4.  If  you  desire  to  display  something  on  the  class- 
room wall,  do  not  stick  it  up  anywhere;  find  a 
place  for  it. 

5.  Keep  the  window  shades  balanced. 

6.  Make  the  teacher's  desk  a  model  of  good  design  in 
balanced  decoration.  Try  always  to  have  flowers 
on  the  desk. 

1  The  subject  of  schoolroom  decoration  is  extensively  discussed 
in  Chapters  VI- VIII,  Burrage  and  Bailey,  School  Sanitation  and 
Decoration. 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  1 77 

7.  Keep   the  windowsills  free  from  litter.     If  you 
have  plants,  see  that  they  are  well  arranged. 

8.  Have  pictures  hung  a  little  above  the  eye  level. 

9.  Quality  and  quantity  should  be  the  characteristic 
feature  of  display. 

10.   Remember  that  the  most  effective  method  of  teach- 
ing is  by  example.     Have  the  room  speak  for  itself. 

The  principal  can  use  his  influence  toward  having 
proper  wall  surfaces  provided  by  the  building  department. 
"Avoid  glaring  white  walls.  Broken  colors  (i.e.  colors 
modified  by  gray)  are  advised.  For  north  and  west 
exposures,  use  warm  colors.  For  south  and  east  ex- 
posures, use  cool  colors.  The  natural  lighting  of  the 
room  should  govern  the  depth  of  color  used."  The  wall 
surface,  properly  prepared,  is  itself  a  suggestion  of  artistic 
treatment  by  means  of  pictures,  and  the  principal  can 
encourage  their  acquisition.  In  some  cities,  pictures 
and  casts  are  subject  to  requisition  as  general  supplies. 
In  others,  certain  methods  of  raising  money  for  their 
purchase,  or  certain  restrictions  placed  upon  selection, 
are  officially  recognized.1    Parents  may  cooperate  with 

1  "At  the  first  meeting  of  the  board  in  September  of  each  school 
year,  a  committee  shall  be  appointed  to  be  known  as  the  committee 
on  school  decoration.  This  committee  shall  consist  of  one  member 
of  the  board  of  school  commissioners,  to  be  appointed  by  the 
president  of  said  board,  the  superintendent  of  schools,  the  director 
of  the  art  department.  The  supervising  principal  of  the  district 
in  which  the  gift  is  to  be  placed  shall  serve  on  the  committee  in  the 
work  for  his  district. 

N 


178  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

teachers  in  subscribing  funds,  or  school  exercises  may  be 
held  to  which  an  admission  fee  is  charged.  Some  firms 
of  art  publishers  loan  exhibits  of  standard  pictures  on  a 
basis  of  a  commission  on  the  sale  of  tickets  of  admission. 
The  following  suggestions  concerning  pictures  for  wall 
decoration  are  based  upon  considerations  both  of  art  and 
of  public  and  pedagogic  policy,  and  are  a  digest,  in  the 
main,  of  circulars  issued  by  the  New  York  State  Educa- 
tion Department,  Division  of  Visual  Instruction. 

1.  "The  subject  must  be  of  recognized  artistic  value 
and  appropriate  to  the  use  of  the  grade  or  department 
for  which  it  is  selected." 

2.  Those  subjects  should  be  avoided  which  are  ob- 
jectionable: (1)  "on  religious  grounds,  as  tending  to 
irreverence  for  things  held  sacred,  or  as  tending  to  dig- 
nify and  enforce  or  to  ridicule  or  antagonize  particular 
doctrines" ;  (2)  "on  ethical  grounds,  as  tending  to  make 
vice  or  questionable  habits  familiar  or  attractive,  or  as 
disregarding  prejudice  against  the  nude  in  art,"  or  (3)  on 
emotional  grounds,  as  portraying  the  painful. 

"  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  this  committee  to  consider  all  gifts  pro- 
posed for  the  schools.  The  committee  shall  have  the  power  to 
accept  or  reject  any  or  all  such  gifts  and  may  act  in  an  advisory 
capacity  respecting  all  such  proposed  gifts.  The  committee  shall 
also  act  in  an  advisory  capacity  respecting  the  decorating  and 
coloring  of  walls  of  school  rooms. 

"  Trees  or  vines.  No  living  tree  or  climbing  vine  shall  be  killed 
or  removed  except  upon  the  formal  approval  of  the  committee  on 
buildings  and  grounds  or  of  the  board."  —  Indianapolis,  XXVIII. 


THE  MATERIAL  EQUIPMENT  179 

3.  The  best  type  of  picture  is  a  high-grade  photo- 
graphic reproduction;  engravings,  etchings,  and  poor 
color  prints  are  to  be  avoided.1 

4.  "The  impression  made  by  one  large  picture,  and 
the  effect  it  produces  on  the  mind  and  thought  of  the 
pupil,  is  far  greater  than  that  made  by  several  small 
pictures." 

5.  "The  frame  should  be  of  hard  wood,  preferably 

1  Miss  Mary  Walsemann,  principal,  Public  School  8,  Brooklyn, 
has,  in  the  primary  rooms,  a  graded  series  of  blackboard  pictures. 
The  front  blackboards  are  left  free  of  all  decoration  but  in  those 
about  the  sides  and  back  of  the  room  the  upper  foot  or  so  of  space 
is  given  over  to  permanent  decoration.  The  border  varies  in 
width  by  grades  according  to  the  space  available  above  the  ordi- 
nary reach  of  the  pupil.  The  decoration  consists  of  a  repeat,  with 
minor  variations,  in  colored  chalk,  and  a  series  of  different  pictures, 
cut  from  discarded  books  and  charts  and  from  new  inexpensive 
prints,  pasted  on  the  board  and  placed  appropriately  in  accordance 
with  a  unified  scheme.  A  narrow  paper  strip  is  pasted  on  the  lower 
edge  of  the  border  to  catch  the  accidental  upward  sweep  of  the 
eraser  in  the  regular  use  of  the  blackboard. 

The  present  series  consists  of  the  following  subjects : 

iA  Dutch  children 
iB  Reading-chart  rhymes 
2A  Mother  Goose 

2B  Stevenson :  Child's  Garden  of  Verses 
3A  Children  in  Art 
3B  Eugene  Field  (Parrish  pictures) 
4A  Industries  of  the  United  States 
4B  Children  from  other  lands 
Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin 


180  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

well-seasoned  quartered  oak,  three  or  four  inches  wide, 
without  grooves  or  other  devices  for  collecting  dust. 
The  color  of  the  frame  should  tone  into  the  picture. 
French  glass  of  first  quality  should  be  used.  Framing 
with  mat  or  margin  should  he  avoided  unless  such  treat- 
ment is  essential  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  picture." 

Summary.  The  principal  is  responsible  for  the 
material  conditions  of  his  school.  He  must  under- 
stand good  building  and  equipment,  secure  the  best 
he  can,  and  make  the  best  use  of  what  he  has.  He 
must  understand  the  heating  and  ventilating  system 
and  secure  their  proper  management.  He  must 
select  supplies  wisely,  handle  them  economically, 
and  hold  teachers  and  pupils  responsible  for  their 
care.  He  must  secure  some  decoration  of  rooms 
and  corridors  and  make  sure  that  it  is  appropriately 
artistic. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE 

The  principal  has  a  broad  responsibility  for  the 
care  of  the  pupils  of  his  school :  he  must  protect  and 
develop  them  along  physical,  mental,  and  moral 
lines.  The  first  of  these  responsibilities  will  be 
considered  in  this  chapter,  under  three  heads : 
(i)  General  Responsibility,  (2)  Entrance  and  Exit, 
(3)  Physical  Care. 

1.  General  responsibility  for  pupils.  A  pupil 
duly  sent  to  school  by  parents  is  under  the  respon- 
sible care  of  the  principal  until  he  is  formally  dis- 
missed at  the  close  of  the  session.  How  far  the 
principal's  authority  over  his  pupils  extends  beyond 
the  portals  of  the  schoolhouse  and  the  time-limits 
of  the  daily  session  is  but  loosely  defined  in  many 
states  and  cities.  In  general,  while  pupils  "  are 
going  to  and  returning  from  school,  the  teacher's 
authority  is  concurrent  with  that  of  the  parent. 
.  .  .  When  the  child  has  returned  to  his  home, 
the  authority  of  the  teacher  ceases  absolutely  and 

181 


182  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

the  parent  once  more  becomes  solely  responsible 
for  the  conduct  of  the  child.,,  * 

"It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  teachers  to  cause  the 
pupils,  after  the  closing  of  the  schools,  to  leave  the 
neighborhood  immediately  and  in  an  orderly  manner. 
Playing  in  the  street  in  the  vicinity  of  the  school  shall 
not  be  allowed."  —  Baltimore,  XV,  8. 

"The  Superintendent  of  Instruction  is  directed  to  have 
principals  and  teachers  give  adequate  and  frequent  in- 
struction to  all  children  in  elementary  grades  relative 
to  the  dangers  of  street  traffic,  crossings,  etc.,  and  how  to 
avoid  them."  —  Cleveland,  VII,  10. 

Permitting  pupils  to  leave  the  building.  It  is 
evident  that  the  school  can  be  held  to  a  strict  ac- 
countability for  the  pupils  while  they  are  in  the 
school  building  and  on  the  school  premises.  The 
principal  cannot  lightly  permit  any  of  them,  while 
the  school  is  in  session,  to  leave  the  building  or 
school  grounds. 

In  groups,  under  school  auspices.  A  number  of 
pupils  —  in  fact  the  whole  school  —  may  leave  the 
building  for  some  exercise  related  to  the  regular 
school  work.  The  school  may  take  part  in  a  parade 
or  patriotic  exercises,  or  it  may  go  to  a  park  or 
athletic  ground  for  a  "  field  day,"  or  a  class  may  go 
1  The  Status  of  the  Teacher,  p.  34. 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  183 

on  some  excursion  connected  with  the  work  in 
geography,  history,  etc.  In  every  case,  the  author- 
ity, and  consequently  the  responsibility,  of  the 
school  is  continued.  The  principal  must  be  sure 
that  every  pupil  is  under  the  definite  responsible 
protection  of  some  teacher.  Pupils  will  ordinarily 
require  a  larger  amount  of  supervision  under  these 
circumstances  than  when  in  the  classroom;  each 
teacher  should  have  fewer  pupils  under  her  guidance. 
It  is  wise  for  the  principal  to  share  with  the  parents 
responsibility  for  the  care  of  pupils  when  they  are 
taken  outside  the  school.  Participation  in  extra- 
mural exercises  should  be  conditioned  on  parent's 
consent.1 

Individually.  There  are  circumstances  under 
which  individual  pupils  may  be  permitted  to  leave 
the   school  building   during   a   session.     They   are 

1  Mr.  William  P.  McCarty,  principal,  Public  School  55,  Bronx, 
New  York,  uses  the  following  printed  form : 

I  give  my  consent  for  my  ^ghter 


To  go  on  an  excursion  to 


On    

Parent's  Signature 


1 84  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

chiefly  (a)  on  the  request  of  the  parent,  (b)  in 
case  of  illness,  (c)  in  case  of  discipline,  and  (d)  for 
messenger  service. 

a.  On  parent's  request.  Parents  frequently  re- 
quest the  dismissal  of  their  children  before  the  close 
of  the  session.  Whatever  the  principal's  legal 
rights  in  the  matter  he  may  well  exercise  discretion. 
It  is  important  that  the  child  respect  the  authority 
of  his  parents,  and  yet  careless  or  thoughtless  parents 
are  prone  to  make  unnecessary  requests  for  the 
dismissal  of  their  children.  In  the  interest  of  the 
child  concerned  and  of  the  school  as  a  whole,  the 
securing  of  such  dismissal  should  be  made  as  diffi- 
cult as  possible.  There  are  various  degrees  of 
rigidity  which  may  be  maintained : 

i.  Pupils  may  be  permitted  to  leave  at  any  time 
during  a  session,  the  pupil  on  his  return  to  bring 
a  note  of  explanation  from  the  parent. 

2.  Pupils  may  be  permitted  to  leave  only  upon 
the  written  request  of  the  parent. 

The  objection  to  either  of  these  rules  is  that 
parents  are  thoughtless  in  the  matter,  and  the 
earnest  or  pouting  plea  of  the  child  to  go  along  on  a 
shopping  expedition,  for  instance,  is  not  resisted. 
Writing  a  note  to  the  teacher  or  principal  is  regarded 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  185 

as  a  small  price  to  pay  for  freedom  from  the  child's 
vexatious  insistence. 

3.  Pupils  may  be  dismissed  only  upon  the  per- 
sonal application  of  the  parent  at  the  school.  Two 
distinct  advantages  accrue  from  this  rule :  the  parent 
is  less  likely  to  make  the  request  on  any  but  serious 
accounts;  and  the  presence  of  the  parent  gives 
the  principal  the  opportunity  to  discuss  the  matter 
and  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  parent  is  taking 
upon  himself  the  responsibility  for  the  loss  of 
school  work  which  the  child  suffers.1 

4.  All  requests  for  dismissal  may  be  refused 
on  the  ground  that  if  it  is  important  that  a  pupil 
should  be  out  of  school  any  part  of  the  session,  it 
must  be  important  enough  for  him  to  remain  out  the 
entire  session.     Such  a  rule  is  justified  by  the  fact 

1  Louisville :  "  No  pupil  after  entering  school  in  the  morning, 
shall  leave  the  grounds  without  the  consent  of  the  principal ;  nor 
shall  any  pupil  be  dismissed  except  on  the  written  request  of 
parent  or  guardian.  All  such  requests,  however,  shall  be  dis- 
couraged by  the  principal  as  much  as  possible.,,  —  14,  §. 

New  Haven:  "No  pupil  shall  be  excused  from  school  during 
the  regular  sessions  to  take  music,  dancing  or  other  lessons,  to 
carry  dinners,  to  sell  papers  or  regularly  for  any  purpose."  —  254. 

Baltimore :  "  No  pupil  shall  be  permitted  to  leave  school  before 
the  regular  hour  of  closing,  except  for  some  extraordinary  reason, 
of  which  the  Principal  shall  be  the  judge.  If  the  Principal  is  in 
doubt  he  shall  consult  the  Superintendent/ '  —  XV,  7. 


186     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

that  when  a  pupil  leaves  the  classroom  during  a 
session,  gathering  and  packing  up  his  books  and 
getting  his  hat  and  coat,  he  usually  distracts  the 
attention  of  the  class  for  at  least  one  minute,  and 
that  it  is  fairer  for  one  pupil  to  forego  fifty  minutes 
than  to  get  it  at  the  expense  of  the  loss  of  one 
minute  by  each  of  fifty  pupils.  The  release  of 
attention  may  not  be  apparent ;  the  pupils  may,  by 
all  outward  signs,  seem  to  be  following  the  work  at 
hand  when,  in  reality,  they  are  following  the  envi- 
able comrade  to  his  extramural  joys. 

b.  In  case  of  illness.  Frequently  a  conscien- 
tious and  ambitious  pupil  comes  to  school  when 
his  physical  condition  demands  that  he  should  have 
remained  at  home.  Teachers  should  be  trained  to 
detect  such  cases  and  refer  them  to  the  principal, 
who  may  in  turn  refer  them  to  the  Department  of 
Health  nurse.  The  principal  will  exercise  his  judg- 
ment as  to  whether  the  pupil  should  be  sent  home. 
Sometimes  a  pupil  becomes  suddenly  ill  during  the 
session.1  It  is  best  to  give  teachers  authority,  in 
advance,  to  dismiss  the  pupil  and  report  the  fact, 
rather  than  to  require  her  to  refer  the  case  to  the 

1 "  Pupils  reporting  at  school  on  inclement  mornings  shall  be 
sent  home,  if  there  is  evidence  of  severe  exposure  to  rain  or  flood 
or  both."  —  New  Orleans,  II?  13. 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  187 

principal  with  the  chance  of  delay  resulting  from  his 
not  being  in  his  office  at  the  time.  Sometimes  it 
is  wise  to  send  an  ill  pupil  home  under  the  escort 
of  some  other  pupil  of  sufficient  maturity  and 
judgment.  On  the  other  hand,  for  many  cases, 
especially  of  accident,  it  is  better  to  make  the  pupil 
comfortable  in  the  school,  and  to  send  for  the  parent, 
to  whom  the  responsibility  for  the  child  may  then 
be  transferred. 

In  case  of  accidents,  the  principal  should  not  only  care 
for  the  pupil  but  should  also  protect  the  school  depart- 
ment by  noting  the  testimony  of  eye-witnesses. 

New  Haven  provides  that  principals  "  shall,  whenever 
a  pupil  meets  with  an  accident  at  school  sufficiently 
serious  to  require  the  services  of  a  physician,  or  when- 
ever a  pupil  is  taken  suddenly  ill  and  a  physician's  serv- 
ices are  necessary,  immediately  report  the  case  to  the 
office  of  the  Board  and  a  physician  shall  be  sent  to  the 
school.  Principals  may,  if  in  their  judgment  the  necessity 
of  the  case  requires  it,  immediately  send  for  the  nearest 
physician.  In  such  cases  the  physician  shall  give  l  first- 
aid'  and  the  Board  will  be  responsible  for  payment  of 
his  service.  The  meaning  of  '  first  aid  •  is  that  temporary 
relief  be  given  until  the  pupil  can  be  sent  home  and  the 
services  of  the  family  physician  obtained.  The  prin- 
cipal shall  immediately  report  the  case  in  writing  to  the 
Superintendent.,,  —  202. 


1 88  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Spokane  uses  the  following  form : 

REPORT    OF    ACCIDENT  — PRINCIPAL'S    STATEMENT 

School.    Date  of  accident Hr.  of  day 

Where  on  premises  did  accident  occur? 

If  not  on  premises,  where  did  accident  occur? 

Name  of  injured  person  in  full 

Age Sex Address 

Name  of  appliance  in  connection  with  which  accident  occurred. . 

Was  accident  due  to  want  of  care  on  part  of  injured  person? 

Was  accident  due  to  want  of  care  of  any  person? 

If  so,  how  ? 

Was  accident  caused  by  removal  of  any  safeguard? 

Describe  in  full  how  accident  happened 

How  could  accident  have  been  prevented  ? 

State  fully  nature  and  extent  of  injury 

What  physician  attended  injured  person  ? 

Address To  what  hospital  sent  ? 

If  not  sent  to  hospital,  where  ? 

Probable  length  of  disability  (give  your  own  opinion) 

If  injured  has  already  returned  to  school,  on  what  date? 

How  many  days  did  he  lose  on  account  of  accident? 

Signed  this.  . .  .  day  of ,  19 .  .  . , 

Principal 
Witnesses  to  accident :  Addresses 


(Additional  remarks  may  be  written  on  reverse  side  of  this 
paper.) 

c.  In  case  of  discipline.  It  is  very  questionable 
whether  a  pupil  referred  to  the  principal  for  dis- 
cipline should  ever  be  sent  out  of  school  during  a 
session,  except  in  the  case  of  one  who  is  willfully 
insubordinate  to  the  principal  and  defiant  and 
menacing.    Usually,  in  such  a  case,  the  eviction  of 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  189 

the  pupil  should  be  the  outward  and  visible  sign 
of  a  formal  and  official  suspension  under  the  rules  of 
the  department.  Any  such  hasty  and  exasperated 
command  as  "Get  out  and  don't  come  back  without 
your  father  "  has  a  detrimental  effect  in  every  way. 
It  is  an  undignified  expression  of  school  authority. 
It  is  unwise  in  that  the  school  cannot  compel  the 
father's  appearance  and  there  is  an  anticlimax  if  the 
pupil  returns  without  him.  There  is  danger  of  acci- 
dent to  the  pupil  outside  the  school  for  which  the 
principal  might  conceivably  be  held  personally  liable. 
In  all  ordinary  cases  of  discipline,  even  if  the  pupil 
is  temporarily  withdrawn  from  his  class,  it  is  wiser 
to  keep  him  under  school  control  until  the  time  of 
the  regular  dismissal.  Yet,  if  a  pupil  willfully  and 
unequivocally  dismisses  himself  without  permission, 
it  is  questionable  whether  the  principal  should 
attempt  to  prevent  him  by  any  physical  compulsion. 
It  would  seem  unwise,  under  any  circumstances,  for 
a  teacher  or  principal  to  "  run  after  "  a  boy  who 
thus  disposes  of  his  own  case.  Left  to  himself,  he  is 
sooner  or  later  brought  to  a  realization  of  the  fact 
that  such  a  dismissal  was  but  one  more  link  in  the 
chain  of  misconduct  which  he  had  been  forging  for 
himself. 


iqo     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

d.  For  messenger  service.  It  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  send  a  pupil  out  of  the  building  on  an  errand. 
It  is  unwise  to  select  pupils  at  random  for  such 
service.  The  personal  safety  of  the  pupil  is  en- 
dangered, and  however  slight  may  be  the  chance  of 
a  pupiPs  meeting  with  an  accident,  the  principal 
should  not  take  even  that  chance  when  it  can  be 
avoided. 

The  principal  may  be  guided  by  the  following 
rules:1  i.  A  pupil  should  not  be  sent  out  except 
on  a  necessary  or  emergency  errand.  2.  Teachers 
should  not  be  permitted  to  send  pupils  without  the 
special  authority  of  the  principal.  3.  Only  a  pupil 
of  sufficient  maturity  and  discretion  should  be  so 
employed.  4.  The  consent  of  the  pupil  should  be 
obtained.  5.  A  systematic  handling  will  enable 
the  principal  to  secure  also  the  consent  of  the 
parent. 

The  following  system  is  suggested.  At  the  beginning 
of  each  year,  each  teacher  of  upper-grade  boys  is  re- 
quested, by  means  of  the  following  form,  to  submit  the 
names  of  pupils  eligible  for  messenger  service. 

1  Regulations  govern  in  many  cities,  e.g.  Baltimore:  "Pupils 
shall  not  be  sent  on  a  personal  errand  of  any  kind,  nor  be  required 
to  do  any  service  not  connected  with  their  duty  in  the  school- 
room." —  XXIV,  2. 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  191 

191- 

M 

Please  write  below  the  names  of  five  boys  who  are  willing 
to  do  occasional  errands  for  us  outside  the  building,  and 
whose  class  progress,  in  your  judgment,  will  not  be  affected 
thereby. 

1 4 

2 5 

3 

The  pupils  thus  selected  are  given  notes  to  their 
parents  in  this  form : 

Public  School  No.  100, 
Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 

New  York, 191 . . 

M 


Dear : 

It  often  happens  in  connection  with  our  school  work  that 
there  are  errands  to  be  done  outside  the  school  building. 

has  expressed  a  willingness  to  be  of  service 

to  us  in  this  manner.  His  class  work  seems  to  be  of  such 
average  excellence  as  to  allow  of  whatever  loss  of  time  it 
might  involve. 

If  you  are  willing  that  he  should  be  sent  on  such  occasional 
errands,  kindly  signify  your  permission  by  signing  the  accom- 
panying note. 

Respectfully  yours, 
(Principal.) 


IQ2      THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

The  inclosure  is  as  follows : 

New  York, 191 . . . 

To  the  Principal, 

Public  School  No.  100, 

New  York. 

Dear  Sir: 

I  am  entirely  willing  that  my  son,  ,  should 

occasionally  be  sent  on  errands  outside  of  the  school  building 

so  long  as  his  class  progress  permits. 

Yours  truly, 

(Signed) 

From  the  returns  of  these  authorizing  notes,  a  mes- 
senger list  may  be  made  up,  showing  names  of  messen- 
gers and  their  classrooms.  When  a  boy  is  sent  on  an 
errand,  it  may  be  noted  on  this  list ;  or  better,  the  pupil 
may  fill  out  a  memorandum  to  be  kept  on  file,  as  protec- 
tion to  the  principal  and  for  future  reference : * 

Messenger 

Name 

Room ,  191 

Sent  to 

For 

Time  of  leaving Of  return 


1  A  credential  may  be  given  a  pupil  messenger  for  protection 

against  suspicion  of  truancy.    A  New  York  principal  uses  this 

form: 

The  bearer 

is  absent  from  school  by  permission, 19. . . 

from 

William  A.  Kottman, 

Principal,  P.  S.  147,  Man. 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  193 

2.  Entrance  and  exit  of  pupils.  Careful  super- 
vision must  be  given  to  the  entrance  and  exit  of 
pupils,  to  the  end  that  they  may  be  effected  in  an 
orderly  manner  and  with  safety.  It  is  wise  to  have 
some  one  in  authority  responsible,  at  all  times,  for 
the  supervision  of  pupils.  This  necessitates  the 
assignment  of  teachers  or  janitors  to  special  duty 
in  playgrounds,  playrooms,  corridors,  etc.  If  there 
is  a  sufficient  number  of  men  teachers  in  the  school, 
they  may  be  assigned  to  all  of  this  duty  as  regards 
the  boys,  leaving  to  the  women  teachers  the  super- 
vision of  the  girls'  playgrounds  only.  An  assign- 
ment of  teachers  to  this  duty  in  weekly  or  semi- 
weekly  shifts  is  probably  most  satisfactory.  It  is 
not  an  attractive  form  of  service,  and  three  or  five 
days  in  succession  is  usually  sufficient  to  satisfy 
the  most  aspiring  teacher,  for  it  means  her  presence 
in  and  about  the  playgrounds  and  corridors  for 
the  half  hour  or  so  preceding  the  opening  of  both 
morning  and  afternoon  sessions.  The  number  of 
teachers  assigned  to  such  duty  will  depend  upon  the 
size  of  the  school,  the  number  of  pupils,  and  the 
area  to  be  supervised.  As  a  general  rule  it  may  be 
expected  that  from  about  one  sixth  to  one  eighth 
of  the  teachers  will  be  required  for  such  duty ;  that 


194     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

is,  the  duty  will  recur  for  each  teacher  about  once 
in  six  or  eight  weekly  or  other  periods. 

The  rigidity  of  the  discipline  to  be  maintained  at 
these  times  may  vary  in  degree  with  conditions.  If 
there  is  ample  playground  area,  great  freedom  may 
be  allowed  the  pupils,  permitting  them  to  play 
games,  run  about,  shout,  and  otherwise  disport 
themselves  as  is  natural  to  the  genus.  If  the  play- 
ground area  is  limited,  such  freedom  might  result 
in  serious  accidents  to  pupils,  and  hence  greater 
restriction  must  be  placed  upon  them.  It  is  better, 
however,  to  set  a  standard  of  less  rigid  deportment 
and  have  it  conformed  to,  than  to  make  rigid  rules 
which  are  disregarded.  For  instance,  it  is  better 
not  to  have  a  rule  of  "no  talking  "  than  to  have 
such  a  rule  and  then  allow  whispering  as  a  common 
occurrence ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  better  to  require 
"  no  talking  "  and  get  it,  than  to  allow  "  whisper- 
ing "  and  have  it  grow  into  boisterous  conduct. 

As  to  conduct  in  halls  and  on  stairways,  there  is 
something  to  be  said  in  favor  both  of  a  laissez-faire 
condition  and  of  its  opposite,  —  rigid  military  dis- 
cipline.1   When   adults   attend   a   concert,   church 

1  In  French  schools  pupils  always  enter  and  leave  the  school- 
room in  double  file,  often  singing  as  they  march. 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  195 

service,  or  other  gathering,  they  enter  the  edifice 
about  as  they  please,  certainly  with  no  military 
restrictions,  upon  their  conduct.  Hence,  it  may  be 
argued,  if  we  are  to  train  pupils  for  life,  we  should 
train  them  to  enter  the  school  building  in  an  orderly 
manner,  but  without  restraint,  not  prohibiting  them 
from  conversing  in  ordinary  tones,  but  allowing 
them  to  saunter  in  as  they  would  at  any  other  public 
building.  Military  training,  however,  learning  to 
act  and  march  in  unison,  learning  to  carry  one- 
self with  proper  posture  and  poise,  are  also  valuable 
accomplishments.  The  forming  of  pupils  on  lines, 
maintenance  of  these  lines,  and  marching  in  step, 
with  an  absolute  requirement  of  "no  talking,"  give 
valuable  training  and  lead  to  orderly  and  well- 
mannered,  not  to  say  "  showy/ '  passage  of  pupils. 

The  various  stairways  and  exits  should  be  num- 
bered or  lettered  and  plainly  designated  by  placards, 
and  in  each  classroom  there  should  be  posted  a 
statement  of  the  procedure  for  regular  dismissals. 

Emergency  dismissals.  In  most  cities  emergency 
dismissals,  by  way  of  drill  to  provide  for  safe  exit  in 
case  of  actual  danger,  are  required  periodically  by 
law  or  by  board  rules  or  both.  Even  when  not 
specifically  required  the  principal  should  have  them 


196     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

at  least  monthly  or  semimonthly,  both  for  the  sake 
of  the  actual  drill  and  for  the  confidence  such  drills 
inspire  in  the  public,  which  feels  that  it  may  trust 
the  school  authorities  in  an  emergency. 

Fire-drill  plans.  Other  emergencies  may  arise 
necessitating  speedy  exit,  but  the  chief  source  of 
danger  is  from  fire.  Planning  for  drills  to  be  used 
in  case  of  fire  serves  sufficiently  to  guard  against  the 
other  dangers.     In  planning  for  fire  drills : 

i.  The  principal  should  study  the  lay  of  the 
land  about  the  school  building,  noting  the  location  of 
the  fire  hydrants,  the  nearest  fire  alarm  station 
(there  should  be  one  in  every  schoolhouse),  and  the 
nearest  fire  house. 

2.  The  principal  should  figure  the  route  that  is 
likely  to  be  taken  by  the  fire  engines  in  coming  to 
the  building,  and  determine  the  locations  for  the  best 
disposition  of  the  pupils  when  they  are  out  of  the 
building. 

The  pupils  should  travel  a  minimum  distance  from 
the  school  to  a  place  of  safety.  Each  class  may  be 
given  a  fixed  position  as  related  to  certain  landmarks, 
—  posts,  trees,  etc.,  —  or,  if  convenient,  to  houses 
by  their  numbers.  Where  this  is  impracticable,  the 
pupils  first  out  from  a  given  exit  may  go  to  a  stated 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  197 

point  and  the  remaining  pupils  form  a  continuous 
line  from  the  exit.  In  this  case  it  is  especially 
necessary  that  some  one  be  assigned  to  the  duty  of 
keeping  the  sidewalk  about  the  exit  free  from  pupils, 
and  of  preventing  crowding  by  other  people. 

3.  The  principal  should  schedule  the  exact  route 
to  be  taken  by  each  class  to  its  position  of  safety, 
providing  for  the  non-intersection  of  files  of  pupils, 
and,  where  possible,  arrange  for  the  marching  of 
pupils  to  music. 

4.  The  principal  should  devise  a  code  of  signals 
for  emergency  dismissal.  The  larger  the  building, 
the  less  elaborate  and  complicated  it  should  be. 
The  simplest  code  is  to  have  two  signals,  one  for 
emergency  dismissal  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
in  which  the  pupils  take  with  them  their  hats  and 
coats  and  perhaps  their  books;  the  other  for  an 
immediate  exit  without  waiting  to  get  outer 
clothing.  The  two  signals,  whether  by  classroom 
electric  bells,  hall  gongs,  or  central  bell,  should  be 
sufficiently  distinct  so  that  they  will  not  be  confused 
with  each  other  or  with  the  signal  for  regular  dis- 
missal. 

Two  strokes  of  a  gong,  as  distinguished  from  five 
strokes,  is  much  better  than  signals  of  one  and  two 


198     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

strokes,  of  two  and  three,  etc.  If  the  two  signals 
differ  by  only  a  single  stroke  the  teacher  may  have 
difficulty  in  determining  which  is  meant.  More- 
over, if  there  are  several  gongs  located  at  different 
points,  more  than  one  of  them  is  likely  to  be  heard 
by  each  teacher  and  the  strokes  merge  one  into 
another. 

To  obviate  the  danger  which  might  arise  from 
the  signaling  apparatus  failing  to  work, l  the  regular 
signals  may  be  supplemented  by  a  "  still  alarm," 
in  which  monitors  pass  quickly  from  room  to  room, 
displaying  some  form  of  signal  card.2 

1  Rochester  requires  the  principal  to  test  the  fire  alarm  system 
each  morning  before  the  opening  of  school.  Many  cities  pre- 
scribe this  as  a  duty  of  the  janitor.  Detroit  provides  him  with 
the  following  form: 

JANITOR'S  EXIT  REPORT 

Date 

8 :  45  a.m. 
In  accordance  with  Rule  No.  114  of  the  Board  of  Education,  I 
have  personally  examined  all  exits  and  hereby  report  them  to  be 
unlocked,  clear  and  free. 

Signed 

Engineer- Janitor. 
School. 

2  San  Francisco  provides  that  "The  general  alarm  shall  consist 
of  the  cry  of  fire,  or  of  the  cry  of  fire  followed  by  a  quick  and 
violent  ringing  of  bells."  —  III. 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  199 

5.  The  principal  should  make  provision  for  an 
inspection  of  each  floor  after  a  drill  to  make  sure 
that  no  persons  are  left  in  the  building.  He  should 
also  make  special  provision  for  the  care  of  physically 
incapacitated  pupils  during  a  drill. 

6.  The  principal  should  post  in  each  room  a 
placard  showing  exactly  what  is  required  of  teachers 
and  pupils  in  case  of  drill,  for  example : 

Emergency  Drill 
Signals  :  Five  strokes  of  hall  gongs, 

Pupils  go  without  wraps  and  hats. 
Two  strokes  of  hall  gongs, 

Pupils  go  with  wraps  and  hats. 
(Note :  Signals  are  to  the  teacher  and  not  to  the  pupils.) 
Order  :     All  pupils  in  Room  75 

use  stairway  and  exit  B, 
following  pupils  of  Room  25, 
and  preceding  pupils  of  Room  35, 
and  line  up  in  front  of  282  Fulton  St. 
(Note :  Pupils  start  from  the  room  in  double  line  and 
maintain  this  double  formation  throughout 
the  entire  drill.) 
(Note :   There  shall  be  absolute  quiet  throughout  the  en- 
tire drill.) 
Return  :  Upon  signal,  pupils  return  to  the  classrooms  in 
the  reverse  order  of  that  in  which  they  went 
out. 


200     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

Conduct  of  drill.  In  the  conduct  of  drills  the 
following  rules  are  suggested : 

i.  All  drills  should  come  unexpectedly  to  teachers 
and  pupils. 

2.  Do  not  have  drills  in  unfit  weather.  Especially 
do  not  drill  pupils  in  immediate  exit  except  when  it 
is  warm  enough  to  make  it  safe  for  them  to  go  out 
without  hats  and  wraps. 

3.  Test  signaling  apparatus  frequently. 

4.  Make  provision  for  pupils  who  may  be  in 
the  basement,  in  the  toilet,  or  in  rooms  other  than 
their  classrooms  at  the  time  of  the  drill,  so  that 
they  may  join  the  nearest  line. 

5.  Have  drills  under  varying  conditions : 

(a)  At  various  hours  during  the  regular  class 

work. 

(b)  During  an  assembly. 

(c)  During  a  recess. 

6.  Occasionally  block  off  a  stairway,  hallway, 
or  exit,  or  imagine  them  blocked  off,  so  that  safe  exit 
might  be  made  were  such  difficulties  real. 

7.  On  the  first  day  of  the  term  make  sure  that 
janitor,  teachers,  and  pupils  understand  the  fire- 
drill  regulations  and  have  a  drill  within  a  few  hours. 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  201 

Precautions.  Certain  general  precautions  should 
be  taken : 

i.  Train  the  janitor  not  to  permit  the  accumu- 
lation of  rubbish  or  waste,  and  assign  him  and  his 
assistants  specific  duties  in  case  of  drill,  such  as 
promptly  fastening  open  the  various  doors  and 
stationing  themselves  at  a  certain  position  or  in 
charge  of  a  certain  territory,  to  protect  pupils  from 
street  traffic.1 

2.  Confer  with  the  fire  and  police  authorities. 
They  will  usually  exhibit  genuine  interest  in  school 
drills  and  often  make  valuable  suggestions.  In 
Denver  the  Fire  Department  is  requested  to  call 
fire  drills  at  the  schools  without  notification  any 
time  after  the  first  week. 

3.  Train  teachers  to  keep  themselves  under  good 
control  during  a  drill.  Discuss  frankly  with  them 
the  actual  chances  of  danger.2  If  the  building  is  a 
modern,  fireproof  structure,  point  out  how  difficult 
it  would  be  to  organize  a  fire  in  it  that  would  injure 
the  pupils,  showing  that  the  sole  danger  is  from 

1  Pupil  monitors  may  be  stationed  at  necessary  places  on  the 
street  and  display  placards  reading  "Stop.     School  Fire  Drill." 

2  "The  principals  shall  give  such  instruction  to  assistants  and 
teachers  as  will  prepare  them  to  act  prudently  and  promptly  in 
case  of  fire.  ..."  —  Indianapolis,  XV,  3. 


202     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

panic.  If  the  building  has  certain  defects  of  struc- 
ture from  the  fire-risk  side,  explain  the  conditions 
and  the  means  of  minimizing  the  dangers.1 

A  single  exit  from  each  room  is  better  than  more  than 
one.  In  case  of  emergency,  the  teacher  should  quickly 
gain  this  single  exit,  command  it,  and  from  this  vantage 
point  control  her  class  and  forestall  panic. 

4.  Assure  teachers  that  during  a  drill  they  are 
authorized  to  exercise  military  law  if  necessary. 
If  a  pupil  should  call  out  "Fire,"  or  make  similar 
outcry,  he  should  be  dealt  with  summarily.  Cor- 
poral punishment,  however  unjustifiable  at  any 
other  time,  will  be  condoned  by  public  sentiment 
and  school  authorities  when  employed  to  prevent 
serious  panic  among  little  children. 

5.  Have  teachers  instruct  pupils  in  advance  ex- 
plicitly as  to  their  duties  in  case  of  drill.  Warn 
pupils  that  the  signals  are  for  the  teacher  and  not 
for  them,  and  that  they  are  to  make  no  move  until 
ordered  to  by  the  teacher.  Too  much  emphasis 
cannot  be  placed  upon  the  fact  that  they  have  but 
a  single  duty  in  case  of  a  fire  drill,  namely  to  give 

1  Teachers  may  be  assigned  in  committees  to  report  on  con- 
ditions along  the  several  routes  of  exit,  e.g.  an  unprotected  gas- 
jet,  a  door  not  swinging  readily,  a  slippery  step  or  broken  tread. 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  203 

prompt  and  explicit  obedience  to  the  teacher.  It  is 
probably  best  to  direct  pupils  to  keep  one  hand 
on  the  hand  rail  while  going  downstairs. 

6.  Aim,  first,  for  good  order  and  freedom  from 
panic;  only  after  these  are  secure  put  emphasis 
upon  the  element  of  speed.1  The  principal  should 
determine,  from  the  character  of  his  particular 
building,  the  approximate  ratio  of  fire  hazard  to 
speed  hazard.  If  the  building  is  old  and  of  faulty 
construction,  the  important  consideration  is  to  train 
pupils  to  get  out  of  the  building  in  the  speediest 
fashion  possible.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  building 
is  of  modern  fireproof  construction  speed  is  not  a 
factor  of  the  same  importance  and  the  principal  will 
not  deliberately  create  an  unnecessary  speed  hazard 
at  the  expense  of  lessened  order. 

3.  Physical  care  of  pupils.  Principal  and  teachers 
must,  in  many  ways,  minister  to  the  physical  wel- 
fare of  pupils.  The  building  must  be  (a)  kept  clean 
and  (b)  properly  heated  and  ventilated.  Pupils 
must  be  (c)  instructed  in  physical  culture.  They 
must    (d)  have   regular   recesses   and    (e)  be   per- 

1  "System,  order,  and  obedience,  and  steady  and  firm  control 
shall  be  the  points  of  merit  in  fire-drills,  instead  of  extreme  rapid 
movements  and  shortening  of  time."  —  Omaha,  VI,  18. 


204     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

mitted  to  leave  the  room  when  necessary.  The 
school  must  take  preventive  measures  against  (/)  the 
spread  of  disease,  (g)  body  strain,  (h)  eyestrain, 
and  (i)  pathological  fatigue,  (j)  Home  study  must 
be  regulated.  Pupils  who  have  (k)  physical  or 
(I)  mental  defects  must  be  discovered.  Finally, 
(m)  adolescent  girls  must  be  given  special  con- 
sideration. 

a.  Keeping  the  building  clean.  The  janitor, 
in  some  places  called  "  custodian,"  should  have 
definite  instructions  as  to  the  extent  and  frequency 
of  his  cleaning  of  the  classrooms.1    The  principal 

1  The  prevailing  duties  required  of  janitors  may  be  summed  up 
as  follows : 

i.   Attend  for  stated  period  daily;  responsible  to  principal. 

2.  Responsible    for    school    property  —  against    fire,    theft, 
damage,  freezing,  etc. 

3.  Protect  against  idlers  and  trespassers. 

4.  Present  neat  appearance  —  uniform. 

5.  Receive  fuel  and  other  supplies. 

6.  Operate  heating  and  ventilating  system. 

7.  Keep  exits  properly  open  or  closed. 

8.  Sweep  rooms,  halls,  sidewalks,  yards,  etc.  (daily). 

9.  Dust  furniture,  woodwork,  etc.  (daily). 

10.  Scrub  floors  (monthly). 

11.  Clean  windows  (monthly),  blackboards. 

12.  Clean  and  disinfect  toilets  (daily) ;  clean  drinking  cups. 

13.  Remove  snow  from  sidewalks  and  paths. 

14.  Collect  waste  paper  and  dispose  of  (burn,  etc.)  and  other 
rubbish  (daily). 

15.  Wind  clocks  regularly. 

16.  Examine  roof  (monthly) ;  keep  gutters  clean  and  clear. 

17.  Make  minor  repairs,  apparatus,  locks,  doors,  fencing,  etc. 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  205 

must  impress  teachers  with  their  responsibility  to 
notify  him  of  derelictions  on  the  part  of  janitors. 
They  must  not  expect  him  to  make  a  constant  in- 
spection of  rooms  or  to  be  clairvoyant.  The  condition 
ought  to  be  that  every  teacher  can  have  her  room 
in  just  that  standard  of  order  and  cleanliness  that 
she  may  choose.  Pupils  cannot  be  encouraged  to 
keep  the  classroom  in  order  if  they  do  not  find  it 
in  a  cleanly  and  orderly  condition  when  they  arrive. 
Teachers  should  not  be  permitted  to  give  direc- 
tions to  the  janitor.  All  orders  to  the  janitor 
should  issue  from  the  principal.  This  applies 
to  all  forms  of  janitorial  service  desired  by  any 
teacher;    she   should   be   required    to   submit  her 

18.  Adjust  furniture. 

19.  Report  major  repairs  needed. 

20.  Display  national  flag  (daily). 

21.  Be  respectful  and  obliging. 

22.  Sharpen  pencils. 

The  Worcester  Quarterly  Statement  Relating  to  Services  of  Janitor 
made  by  the  principal  contains  the  following  items : 

1.  Does  the  janitor  of  your  building  faithfully  perform  his 
duties  as  set  forth  in  the  Rules  for  Janitors? 

2.  If  not,  in  what  particulars  has  he  failed  during  the  term  just 
closed? 

3.  Is  he  cheerful  in  his  service? 

4.  Does  he  assume  responsibility  necessary  to  his  position,  as 
called  for  under  the  Rules  for  Janitors? 

5.  Offer  any  suggestions  looking  to  an  improvement  in  the 
regulations  laid  down  for  janitors. 

6.  Remarks. 


206     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

requests  to  the  principal.  It  is  but  fair  to  the  janitor 
that  he  should  be  subject  to  the  orders  of  but  a  single 
authority,  whose  directions  are  likely  to  be  consistent 
and  uniform.1 

Teachers  and  pupils  should  learn  to  take  such 
pride  in  the  condition  of  their  classrooms  as  to  make 
impossible  any  serious  accumulation  of  dirt,  even  in 
out-of-the-way  corners  of  the  rooms  or  wardrobes, 
thus  reducing  the  chance  of  contagion  through 
microbe-assimilating  dust  and  dirt.2 

b.  Heating  and  ventilating.  The  principal  must 
instruct  teachers  in  the  operation  of  the  apparatus 
with  which  they  are  directly  concerned,  showing 
how  the  temperature  and  ventilation  are  to  be 
regulated.  If,  in  a  steam  heating  system,  the 
radiators  are  controlled  by  hand,  they  must  under- 
stand the  use  of  the  valves ;  if  controlled  by  ther- 

1  The  time  at  which  the  janitor  should  have  "right  of  way"  at 
the  close  of  the  session  should  be  definitely  settled  upon.  Re- 
quired, for  instance,  in  Minneapolis:  "They  (principals)  shall 
permit  the  janitors  to  begin  their  work  twenty  minutes  after  the 
close  of  school."  —  VII,  5  (e). 

2  Sanitary  squads  of  pupils  may  be  selected,  by  appointment  or 
pupil-election,  to  make  periodic  patrol  of  the  buildings  inside  and 
out,  noting  violations  of  rules  as  to  proper  disposal  of  paper, 
rubbish,  etc.,  derelictions  of  janitor,  improper  use  of  drinking 
places,  toilets,  and  school  apparatus. 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  207 

mostat,  the  necessity  for  leaving  the  apparatus 
alone.  Teachers  must  report  promptly  any  defect 
of  operation.1 

If  there  is  a  system  of  ventilation  by  means  of 
fans,  the  teacher  must  understand  the  necessity  for 
keeping  the  windows  of  the  room  closed  while  the 
system  is  in  operation.  Opening  windows  causes 
a  circulation  of  air  from  the  inlets  to  the  windows 
in  a  zone  above  the  level  of  the  pupils,  thus  leaving 
the  impure  air  in  the  lower  part  of  the  room  as  the 
only  supply  for  the  pupils.  Keeping  windows  or 
doors  open  in  one  room  leads  to  the  disturbance  of 
the  proper  circulation  throughout  the  entire  tier 
of  rooms  which  depend  upon  the  same  duct  for  their 
fresh  supply. 

A  chief  danger  is  that  the  teacher  will  regulate 
the  temperature  and  ventilation  to  suit  herself  and 
not  to  suit  the  <ieeds  of  the  pupils.  She  is  usually 
more  active  physically,  and  thus  needs  less  heat 
than  her  pupils ;  or  she  may  be  suffering  some  form 
of  throat  affection  which  makes  her  desire  more 

1  They  must  understand,  too,  that  the  sharp  clicking  sound  in 
the  radiator  which  often  accompanies  the  turning  on  or  off  of 
steam  is  what  is  known  as  water  hammer,  —  caused  by  steam  and 
water  flowing  in  opposite  directions  in  the  coils,  —  and  is  not 
dangerous,  but  is  serious  only  as  it  is  annoying  to  the  ear. 


208     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

heat  than  her  pupils  do.  In  either  case,  her  atten- 
tion must  be  called  to  her  duty  to  the  class.1 

In  spite  of  the  best  of  apparatus  for  heating, and 
ventilating,  exceptional  conditions  occasionally  re- 
sult in  the  temperature  of  a  classroom  reaching 
abnormal  figures.  In  some  cities  principals  are 
specifically  authorized,  within  certain  restrictions,  to 
dismiss  classes  when  this  is  the  case ;  for  example,  in 
St.  Louis  where  the  limits  are  below  6o°  and  above 
900,  and  in  Jersey  City,  where  they  are  650  and  850 
for  primary  classes  and  6op  and  900  for  grammar 
classes. 

c.  Instructing  in  physical  culture.  The  curricu- 
lum in  city  elementary  schools  quite  universally 
includes  instruction  in  hygiene  and  training  in  formal 
gymnastics.  The  principal  will  make  sure  that  the 
subject  is  not  neglected  and  that  the  work  is  more 

1  "  Children  furnished  with  proper  underclothing  natur ally- 
require  less  artificial  heat  to  maintain  comfort  than  those  more 
thinly  clad.  The  teacher,  as  far  as  possible,  ought  to  take  this 
fact  into  account  when  matters  of  heating  are  under  her  control." 

"The  younger  children,  especially  those  who  have  more  adipose 
or  fatty  tissues  surrounding  their  bodies,  need  a  lower  temperature 
in  schoolrooms  than  those  who  are  not  so  protected  against  cold. 
For  this  reason,  other  things  being  equal,  boys  suffer  more  from 
cold  and  generally  require  thicker  clothing  than  girls."  —  Dresslar, 
School  Hygiene,  p.  183. 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  209 

than  perfunctory.  A  daily  inspection  by  teachers 
of  pupils'  observance  of  hygienic  practices  not  only 
checks  up  performance  but  also  emphasizes  the 
importance  of  habits  and  creates  standards.  School, 
class,  and  individual  athletics  afford  ideals  of  physi- 
cal development  and  help  to  maintain  interest  in 
hygiene  and  gymnastics. 

d.  Providing  regular  recesses.  All  pupils  of  at 
least  the  first  four  years  of  school  should  have  a 
scheduled  period  of  recess,  which  should  come  as  near 
the  middle  of  the  session  as  possible,  but  later  rather 
than  earlier  than  the  middle.  No  child  should  be 
deprived  of  his  recess  as  a  means  of  discipline.  The 
recesses  of  successive  classes  in  a  large  school  require 
supervision  by  the  teacher ;  and  upon  the  principal 
is  the  duty  of  arranging  that  they  shall  come  at  the 
best  possible  time  and  yet  not  conflict  with  one 
another.  Within  these  necessary  limitations,  pupils 
should  have  a  maximal  amount  of  freedom.  Free 
play  in  an  outdoor  playground  has  its  merits,  but 
organized  games  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher 
are  much  better  than  merely  keeping  pupils  in  line 
throughout  the  recess  period  or  letting  them  pummel 
one  another  in  indiscriminate  fashion.  The  prin- 
cipal must  provide  for  proper  supervision  of  the 


210     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

toilet   rooms   by   teachers,    janitors,    matrons,    or 
monitors.1 

In  all  grades,  and  particularly  in  the  case  of 
grades  where  there  is  no  formal  recess  period,  there 
should  be  frequent  short  periods  of  relaxation,  set- 
ting-up exercises,  or  other  forms  of  freedom  from  the 
ordinary  restraints  of  the  classroom. 

The  New  York  City  regulations  governing  recesses 
are: 

i.  Recesses  should  be  taken  out  of  doors  unless  lack 
of  space  or  bad  weather  absolutely  prohibits. 

2.  Every  opportunity  for  exercise  should  be  im- 
proved.    Children  should  run  or  skip  to  their  places  in- 

1  Typical  regulations  are : 

"All  pupils  of  elementary  schools  shall  be  allowed  a  recess  of 
fifteen  minutes  each  forenoon,  and  one  of  ten  minutes  each  after- 
noon, from  the  time  they  leave  their  seats  until  again  seated.  In 
case  of  one  session,  the  second  recess  may  be  omitted."  —  Balti- 
more, XIV. 

"Pupils  must  not  be  detained  for  study  or  for  punishment  during 
any  part  of  the  noon  intermission  or  for  the  short  recess.  Except 
in  inclement  weather,  all  pupils  except  those  in  delicate  health 
must  be  required  to  pass  out  of  the  classroom  at  recess."  —  San 
Francisco,  115,  (a). 

"All  children  who  live  too  far  from  their  respective  schools  to 
go  home  will  have  the  privilege  of  remaining  in  the  school  building 
during  the  noon  recess,  provided  they  conduct  themselves  properly. 
But  under  no  circumstances  shall  the  pupils  be  locked  in  the  base- 
ment or  rooms  during  this  period."  —  Cleveland,  34. 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  211 

stead  of  marching.  Standing  in  line  should  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum.  Children  may  be  dismissed  by  squads  to 
attend  the  toilet ;  those  awaiting  their  turn  should  mean- 
while engage  in  play. 

3.  Each  child  should  be  encouraged  to  take  a  drink 
of  water. 

4.  Play  should  be  vigorous.  The  games  chosen  should 
insure  each  child's  taking  active  part.  There  should 
be  at  least  one  minute's  running  in  each  recess. 

5.  If  the  indoor  playground  is  used,  the  temperature 
should  range  from  6o°  to  650.  Windows  and  doors  should 
be  opened  to  provide  sufficient  fresh  air  unless  the  out- 
door temperature  is  very  low.  Too  little  ventilation  and 
too  high  temperatures  are  most  serious  evils  and  should 
be  carefully  guarded  against. 

6.  If  the  play  raises  any  dust,  it  should  be  stopped  at 
once  and  the  children  should  return  to  their  class- 
rooms. The  principal  should  be  informed  and  the 
recess  taken  at  another  time  after  the  playground  has 
been  cleaned. 

7.  In  the  use  of  the  singing  game : 

a.  It  should  not  occupy  more  than  one  half  of  the 
playing  time. 

b.  Not  more  than  one  singing  game  should  be  used  in 
a  recess. 

c.  Too  frequent  repetition  in  the  same  game  should  be 
avoided. 

d.  Only  one  singing  game  should  be  in  progress  at  the 
time. 


212     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

e.  The  song  element  of  the  game  may  be  taught  in 
the  classroom. 

/.  The  song  should  be  carefully  pitched  within  the 
proper  range  of  voice,  and  for  this  purpose  the  pitch  pipe 
should  be  used.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to 
singing  softly  and  to  proper  enunciation.  The  special 
teachers  of  music  will  assist  the  teachers  as  to  the  proper 
manner  of  singing.  The  singing  should  make  appropriate 
use  of  the  head  voice,  and  chest  tones  should  be  avoided. 
If  there  is  a  tendency  to  become  out  of  breath,  the 
children  may  sing  alternately  by  groups  or  classes. 

8.  The  program  for  the  recess  should  be  varied  to 
avoid  monotony.  It  may  well  contain  a  game,  a  song 
play,  and  a  simple  folk  dance.  It  is  more  important  that 
a  few  games  or  dances  should  be  thoroughly  learned  and 
enjoyed,  than  to  become  acquainted  with  many  forms 
of  play. 

The  following  tests  should  be  applied  to  all  play  pro- 
cedure : 

i.  Are  all  the  children  actively  engaged  more  than 
half  the  time? 

2.  Are  they  happy  ? 

3.  May  the  play  be  stopped  and  quiet  attention  ob- 
tained instantaneously  upon  signal  from  the  teacher  in 
charge  ? 

e.  Permitting  pupils  to  leave  the  room.  One  of 
the  disturbing  problems,  particularly  for  the  new 
teacher,  is  to  decide  when  to  grant  requests  of 


THE  PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  213 

individual  pupils  to  leave  the  room  during  the 
session.  If  she  grants  all  requests,  there  is  likeli- 
hood that  pupils  take  advantage  and  make  frequent 
and  unnecessary  requests.  If  she  refuses  to  grant 
every  request,  injury  may  result  to  certain  pupils.  If 
she  exercises  discretion,  and  permits  some  pupils 
and  not  others,  she  may  misjudge  and  be  regarded 
as  partial  and  unjust.  Many  cases  of  discipline 
originate  in  this  problem.1  If  a  teacher  has  diffi- 
culty in  this  respect  probably  the  best  procedure  is 
to  grant  all  requests  (with  a  limitation  merely  as  to 
the  number  of  pupils  to  be  allowed  out  of  the  room 
at  one  time),  and  either  have  all  pupils  report  to 
the  principal  before  returning  to  the  class  or  have 
only  those  cases  which  the  teacher  regards  as  of 
unnecessary  frequency  reported  to  him.  Either  the 
pupil  is  normal  and  needs  to  leave  the  room  very 
infrequently,  or  he  is  abnormal  and  his  case  should 
be  referred  to  his  parents  with  a  view  to  their 
securing  medical  advice. 

An  effective  method  of  control  is  to  provide  each 
teacher  with  a  book  wherein  is  entered  the  name  of  each 

1  "Pupils  will  be  permitted  to  leave  the  schoolroom  in  school 
hours  for  physical  necessities,  and  teachers  are  required  to  use  all 
possible  care  and  discretion  in  respect  to  this  matter."  —  Cleve- 
land, 28. 


214     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

pupil  leaving  the  room  and  the  amount  of  time  lost 
thereby,  emphasizing  this  factor  by  calling  it  a  "Time 
Lost"  book.  By  having  the  pupils  make  each  his  own 
entry,  or  by  having  a  monitor  near  the  door  make  all  the 
entries,  the  keeping  of  the  record  is  no  tax  upon  the 
teacher.  Occasional  inspection  of  the  record  by  the 
principal,  with  general  comment  on  the  amount  of  time 
lost,  helps  to  keep  down  the  amount. 

Such  a  record  as  this  often  supplies  a  valuable  clew  in 
tracing  misdemeanors  in  the  corridors  by  showing  which 
pupils  have  been  out  of  their  rooms  at  any  particular 
time.  Moreover,  pupils,  knowing  that  the  record  is 
kept,  will  be  restrained  from  outside-the-classroom 
misdemeanors. 

/.  Preventing  spread  of  contagious  disease. 
Teachers  must  learn  to  recognize  the  indications  of 
the  chief  "  children's "  diseases  and  particularly 
those  that  are  contagious.1  The  daily  hygiene 
inspection  insures  systematic  attention.  The 
teacher  should  be  oversuspicious  rather  than  the 
reverse.  In  most  cities  there  is  formal  cooperation 
provided  with  the  Department  of  Health,  so  that 
the  principal  works  with  and  through  a  representa- 
tive of  that  department,  a  physician  or  nurse,  or 

1  See  Shaw,  School  Hygiene,  Chap.  XII ;  Francis  Walker,  The 
Study  of  Children;  Burrage  and  Bailey,  School  Sanitation  and  Deco- 
ration, Chap.  IX. 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  215 

both.  That  department  is  usually  clothed  with 
practically  unlimited  legal  powers,  one  of  which 
is  the  exclusion  of  pupils  summarily.1 

Philadelphia  uses  a  form  which  is  typical : 

DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  HEALTH  AND 
CHARITIES 

BUREAU  OF  HEALTH 

Division  of  Medical  Inspection  of  Public  Schools 

Mr 

Dear  Sir  :  This  is  to  notify  you  that 

,  a  pupil  in  the 

School,  is  in  need  of  medical  attention 

for 

You  are  advised  to  consult  your  physician 

without  delay,  or  in  the  event  of  not  being  able  to  procure 
one,  a  hospital  or  dispensary. 

Very  truly  yours, 


Philadelphia, 19. .  Medical  Inspector 

Some  cities  send  out  a  series  of  printed  slips  cautioning 
against  various  ailments,  describing  symptoms,  etc. 

Particularly  aggravating  and  usually  very  con- 
tagious is  pediculosis  capitis.    Teachers  must  be 

1  "At  all  times  the  Inspector  and  Nurse  must  recognize  supreme 
authority  of  the  Principal  in  all  matters  relating  to  school  regu- 
lations." —  Cleveland,  Medical  Inspection  Rule  41. 


2i6     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

taught  to  be  observant  and  to  handle  such  cases  with 
tact.  The  average  parent  is  inclined  to  resent  the 
insistence  of  the  school  authorities ;  but  this  is,  of 
course,  the  result  of  ignorance  or  misunderstanding. 
If  the  case  is  carefully  stated,  and  no  tinge  of  dis- 
grace permitted  to  color  the  report,  the  necessity 
and  justification  of  action  can  be  satisfactorily 
shown  the  parent.1 

g.  Preventing  body  strain.  Correct  posture 
should  be  understood  by  teachers.  It  does  not  mean 
that  every  child  is  to  sit  or  stand  throughout  the 
school  day  in  an  absolutely  ideal  position ;  but  the 
size  and  arrangement  of  the  furniture  should  be 
such  as  to  permit  his  assuming  correct  posture  most 
of  the  time.  The  seating  of  pupils  by  some  arti- 
ficial standard,  as,  for  instance,  according  to  their 
rank,  changing  seats  periodically,  should  not  be 
done  at  the  expense  of  proper  posture.  To  make  a 
small  boy  sit  in  a  high  seat  at  a  high  desk,  because 
he  is  successful  in  his  school  work,  and  to  make 
an  overgrown  boy,  because  he  is  backward  or  dull, 
sit  at  a  desk  so  low  that  he  can  only  with  difficulty 

1  The  technical  view  of  the  matter  is  well  indicated  by  the 
foreign-accented  Department  of  Health  nurse  who  expressed  her 
admiration  for  a  principal  thus :  "He  takes  such  a  noble  stand  on 
the  heads." 


THE   PUPILS'   PHYSICAL  WELFARE  217 

get  his  legs  under  it  or  sprawl  around  it,  is  not 
making  the  best  use  of  even  poor  school  furniture. 
Pupils  do  not  sit  on  a  mental  basis.  The  teacher 
must  be  alert  to  notice  the  pupil  who  is  misfitted 
to  his  seat  and  desk  and  to  give  him  relief  by  chang- 
ing his  seat,  or,  if  the  furniture  is  adjustable,  by 
regulating  it  to  suit  his  needs.  Careless  or  slouchy 
posture  while  sitting,  standing,  or  walking  should 
not  be  permitted;  correct  habits  should  be  formed 
early  and  constantly  maintained.1 

h.  Preventing  eyestrain.  The  teacher  must  be 
constantly  on  the  alert  to  regulate  conditions. 
1.  Pupils  must  be  properly  seated  as  related  to  the 
blackboard,  charts,  etc.  2.  There  must  not  be  too 
large  a  proportion  of  time  spent  in  steady  written 
work.  3.  There  must  not  be  an  undue  amount  of 
reading  assigned  for  home  work.  4.  Pupils  must 
have  correct  posture  during  all  writing  exercises. 
5.  Too  large  a  proportion  of  the  school  work  must 
not  be  done  at  a  point  near  the  eyes,  but  the  black- 
board must  be  liberally  employed,  especially  in  the 
lower  grades.  6.  Pupils  in  blackboard  work  must 
bear  heavily  enough  upon  the  chalk  to  make  the 
writing  easily  legible.  7.  The  window  shades  must 
1  See  Jessie  H.  Bancroft,  The  Posture  of  School  Children. 


218     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

be  regulated  so  that  lights  and  shadows,  especially 
upon  the  blackboards,  are  properly  proportioned. 
Moreover,  as  has  been  noted,  the  principal,  in  his 
selection  of  textbooks,  maps,  and  charts,  will 
secure  such  as  have  sizable  type.1 

i.  Preventing  pathological  fatigue.  The  fatigue 
that  results  from  concentrated  effort  applied  to 
appropriate  work  is  normal  and  healthful.  The 
toxins  created  are  readily  eliminated  by  lungs,  skin, 
and  kidneys.  If,  however,  unremittent  work  and 
worry,  and  perhaps  other  factors,  cause  a  more 
permanent  auto-intoxication,  the  fatigue  accumu- 
lates and  becomes  abnormal  or  pathological.2  The 
number  of  cases  of  true  pathological  fatigue  in 
school  children   is   probably  comparatively   small. 

1  The  lighting  of  the  room  is  not  discussed,  because  that  is  more 
properly  a  matter  of  the  construction  of  the  building.  Dr.  Shaw 
enumerates  certain  rules:  i.  Window  surface  should  be  one 
fourth  to  one  sixth  of  floor  surface.  2.  Light  should  come  from 
the  left,  or  possibly  from  the  rear.  3.  There  should  be  little 
space  between  windows.  4.  Windows  should  extend  to  the  ceil- 
ing. 5.  Window  sills  should  be  three  and  one  half  to  four  feet 
above  the  floor.  6.  Window  shades  should  be  of  darker  tone 
than  the  room. 

2  "  Investigation  seems  to  indicate  that  the  cumulative  effect  of 
fatigue  is  not  in  mere  arithmetic  proportion.  Twice  the  amount 
of  fatigue  requires  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  rest."  —  Frank 
B.  Gilbreth  and  Lillian  M.  Gilbreth,  Fatigue  Study,  p.  5. 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  219 

yet  not  to  be  ignored.1  Principals  must  supervise 
the  quality  and  quantity  of  work  imposed  on  pupils 
by  teachers  and  parents  in  order  to  prevent  cases 
developing.  Teachers  must  be  alert  to  note  symp- 
toms of  cases  already  progressing. 

"Fatigue  becomes  abnormal  and  pathological  when 
a  night's  rest  or  a  longer  period  does  not  bring  relief. 
Then  we  are  liable  to  become  emotionally  disturbed. 
We  worry,  become  morbid,  cross,  and  generally  disagree- 
able. We  imagine  all  sorts  of  difficulties  portend,  and  in 
time,  unless  relief  is  found  by  long,  enforced  rest,  ab- 
normal mental  symptoms  appear."  2 

j.  Regulating  home  study.  Teachers  are  prone 
to  overload  pupils  with  required  home  work,  espe- 
cially the  preparation  of  written  exercises.  It  is 
debatable  whether  it  is  wise,  especially  in  certain 
neighborhoods,  to  require  any  written  home  work. 
Many  pupils  are  entirely  without  facilities  at  home 

1  Studies  made  of  school  children  point  to  the  conclusion  that 
"normal,  healthy  children  in  the  grammar  grades,  in  a  hygienic 
school  environment,  can  meet  the  requirements  of  the  usual  daily 
school  program  without  injury  to  themselves  or  their  work."  — 
William  H.  Heck,  Psychological  Clinic,  vol.  7,  p.  258. 

"In  general  there  is  more  weariness  than  fatigue  in  the  children ; 
and  mental  activities  are  more  necessary  than  complete  idleness." 
—  L.  A.  Robinson,  Mental  Fatigue  and  School  Efficiency,  p.  46. 

2  Dresslar,  School  Hygiene,  p.  280 ;  q.  v.,  p.  282,  for  detection  of 
fatigue  cases  by  tsacher. 


220     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

for  preparing  written  exercises,  and  forcing  them  into 
competition  with  their  more  fortunate  classmates 
is  manifestly  unfair.1  In  reply  it  may  be  said  that 
the  very  requirement  of  such  exercises  leads  to  bet- 
ter recognition  in  the  home  of  the  rights  of  the  child, 
and  results  in  gain  both  to  the  child  and  the  home. 

"The  present  system  of  'home  study '  in  vogue  among 
many  schools  is  wrong.  It  is  pedagogically  unscientific, 
it  is  economically  a  mistake,  and  it  is  morally  barbarous. 

"When  a  child  gets  through  his  school  hours  he  ought 
to  be  through  work  for  the  day.  If  a  grown  man  should 
labor  no  more  than  eight  hours,  why  should  not  a  grow- 
ing  boy  or  girl  have  the  same  right  ? 

1  Home  study  has  been  abolished  in  the  elementary  schools  of 
Sacramento. 

"It  is  clear  that  the  family,  with  its  variability  in  size,  lack  of 
room,  and  diversified  industrial  and  social  activities,  offers  little 
or  no  opportunity  for  the  efficient  guidance  or  supervision  of  the 
child's  study  habits  during  its  school  years."  —  A.  L.  Hall-Quest, 
Supervised  Study,  p.  10. 

Syracuse  provides : 

"Assignment  of  lessons  for  home  study  may  be  made  as  follows : 

3rd  grade,  15  minutes  daily.         6th  grade,  60  minutes  daily. 

4th  grade,  30  minutes  daily.         7th  grade,  75  minutes  daily. 

5th  grade,  45  minutes  daily.         8th  grade,  90  minutes  daily. 

"  Teachers  must  not  assign  home  work  which  will  require  more 
time  of  an  average  pupil  than  is  above  stated.  All  assignments 
of  home  work  must  be  definite  and  of  such  character  that  the  pupil 
can  do  the  work  without  assistance."  —  45. 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  221 

"The  old  notion  is  that  a  teacher  is  a  lesson-giving, 
question-asking,  order-keeping  machine,  also  detective, 
prosecuting  attorney,  policeman,  and  in  loco  parentis. 

"  It  is  about  time  teachers  realized  that  their  business 
is,  on  the  contrary,  (1)  to  inspire  children  with  the  love 
of  study,  and  (2)  to  show  them  how  to  study. 

"The  place  to  study  is  in  school.  The  child  needs  the 
teacher's  help  in  his  work.  Also  he  needs  the  school- 
room atmosphere. 

"When  he  gets  out  of  school  he  ought  to  play.  He 
needs  that,  and  he  needs  the  family  life  quite  as  much  as 
his  books.  He  also  needs  a  chance  to  go  to  parties,  or 
to  lectures,  or  concerts,  or  the  theatre,  or  to  dance  and 
sing."  > 

The  foregoing  may  be  compared  with  the  following, 
which  are  some  of  the  conclusions  based  upon  a  ques- 
tionnaire sent  (191 5)  to  616  superintendents,  principals, 
and  class  teachers,  by  a  committee  of  the  New  York 
Academy  of  Public  Education : 

564  out  of  616  voted  in  favor  of  home  study. 

Compulsory  home  work  should  be  prohibited  below 
the  fourth  school  year. 

In  seventh  year  classes,  the  maximum  home  lessons 
should  be  one  hour ;  in  eighth  year  classes,  one  hour  and 
a  half. 

There  is  substantial  agreement  that  home  study, 
properly  explained  and  carefully  supervised,  will  de- 

1  Dr.  Frank  Crane,  The  Globe,  New  York,  tfov.  23,  1916. 


222  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

velop  self-reliance,  neatness,  concentration,  accuracy, 
industry,  responsibility,  thoroughness,  and  the  study 
habit. 

476  out  of  564  replies  agree  that  proper  home  study 
becomes  not  only  a  function  for  the  improvement  of  the 
school,  but  for  the  home  as  well. 

Careful  measures  must  be  taken  by  all  principals  and 
teachers  to  secure  the  honesty  and  effectiveness  of  home 
work- 
Systematic  plans  must  be  made  for  the  efficient  super- 
vision of  all  home  work,  so  that  it  may  not  become  an 
undue  strain  upon  the  energy  of  the  class  teacher,  or 
take  time  which  should  be  devoted  to  instruction  pur- 
poses. 

The  fact  that  98  per  cent  of  the  4252  boys,  and  97  per 
cent  of  the  4483  girls  who  attend  the  evening  study  room, 
in  social  and  recreation  centers,  were  promoted,  justifies 
their  work,  and  proves  the  necessity  for  its  continuance 
and  extension. 

A  careful  analysis  of  the  time  limits  set  by  515  princi- 
pals and  teachers  shows  that  in  assigning  home  work, 
actual  "study"  should  require  one  half  the  additional 
time  which  is  given  to  the  "  written  work." 

Principals  have  no  more  important  duty  than  the  task 
of  carefully  supervising  both  the  assignments  of  home 
study  and  the  methods  of  determining  the  honesty  and 
efficiency  of  the  results. 

No  home  studies  should  be  permitted,  unless  adequate 
explanations  have  been  given  in  school  by  the  teacher. 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  223 

The  object  of  home  work  should  be  educational,  not 
preventive.  Its  chief  aim  should  be  to  supplement  the 
school  work,  and  not  a  means  of  keeping  the  children  off 
the  streets. 

To  a  great  degree,  home  work  will  vary  according  to 
neighborhood  conditions.  Every  principal  must,  there- 
fore, be  held  strictly  accountable  for  the  needs  of  his  or 
her  particular  school. 

Quality ',  not  quantity,  should  be  the  standard  of  effi- 
ciency in  judging  the  results  of  home  work. 

k.  Discovering  physical  defects.  In  some  cities 
this  is  done  by  agents  of  the  Department  of  Health. 
Teachers  can,  however,  by  frequent  tests  of  vision 
and  hearing,  discover  cases  requiring  professional 
attention.1  In  these  cases,  formal  reports  should 
be  made  to  the  parents.  Affections  of  nose  and 
throat  are  frequent  causes  of  serious  mental  defects 
in  pupils,  and  removal  of  these  causes  almost  in- 
variably results  favorably  to  the  mental  condition 
of  the  children. 

/.  Discovering  mental  defects.  Pupils  with  seri- 
ous physical  defects  —  the  blind,  mute,  deaf,  etc. 

1  For  directions  for  testing  hearing  and  vision,  for  stigmata  of 
various  defects,  and  for  full  discussion  from  the  teacher's  stand- 
point, see  Lewis  M.  Terman,  The  Hygiene  of  the  School  Child. 
Also,  Dresslar,  School  Hygiene.  See,  too,  Walter  B.  Smith, 
Speech  Defects  in  School  Children. 


224  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

—  do  not  as  a  rule  attend  public  school.  Pupils 
mentally  defective,  however,  are  frequently  ad- 
mitted. In  the  case  of  such  a  pupil,  his  defect  often 
remains  undiscovered,  or  if  considered  at  all,  is 
summarily  disposed  of  as  misconduct  and  treated  as 
a  case  of  discipline.  In  those  cities  that  have 
established  psychological  clinics  or  bureaus  (see 
page  237)  there  is  systematic  direction  of  the  work 
of  discovering  mentally  defective  pupils.  Whether 
such  a  bureau  exists  or  not,  teachers  should  learn 
to  detect  these  pupils'  cases,  or  at  least  to  be  sus- 
picious that  certain  pupils  are  defective,  and  the 
principal  should  consider  such  cases  carefully  and 
diagnose  them,  with  the  aid,  when  it  is  possible  to 
secure  it,  of  parents  and  professional  experts. 

The  following  criteria  are  given  by  the  Acting  Super- 
intendent of  Schools,  New  York  City,  Elementary  Cir- 
cular Number  1,  191 7-18,  for 

Children  who  may  be  defective. 

a.  Children  who  have  gross  conduct  disorders :  — 
truants ;  those  who  seem  to  be  incorrigible ;  those  who 
seem  to  show  criminal  tendencies ;  those  who  are  habit- 
ually absent  from  school  even  for  a  half  day  at  a  time ; 
those  who  have  "  tantrums." 

b.  Children  who  seem  nervous:  —  those  who  cry 
easily ;  those  who  are  easily  frightened ;  those  who  con- 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  225 

stantly  move  about ;    choreic  children ;   those  who  have 
unusual  anxieties ;  epileptics. 

c.  Children  who  seem  psychopathic :  —  those  who  do 
not  play ;  those  who  play  with  children  much  younger 
than  themselves;  those  who  are  overconscientious, 
hypersensitive,  etc. ;  those  who  are  extremely  reticent, 
suspicious,  etc. ;  those  who  avoid  companionship,  those 
who  are  irritable;  those  who  have  shown  a  marked 
change  in  disposition. 

d.  Children  whose  progress  is  unsatisfactory :  —  those 
who  show  defect  in  general  information  about  the  home, 
the  school,  and  the  street  environment ;  those  apparently 
unable  to  learn,  to  reason,  to  calculate,  to  plan,  to  con- 
struct; those  who  show  marked  muscular  incoordina- 
tion; those  who  show  defect  in  judgment,  foresight, 
language,  suggestibility,  output  of  effort. 

m.  Giving  special  consideration  to  adolescent  girls. 
The  care  of  girls  at  their  critical  periods  is  commonly 
neglected,  especially  in  the  elementary  schools. 
There  are  several  reasons.  1.  The  matter  is  gen- 
erally regarded  as  a  high-school  problem,  whereas 
the  fact  is  that  more  than  a  majority  of  schoolgirls 
mature    while    yet    in     the     elementary     school. 

2.  Teachers  are  careless  or  inattentive  because  of 
ignorance  as   to   the    importance   of    the    subject. 

3.  In  many  schools  the  attendance  record  is  over- 
emphasized,   and,    in    consequence,    teachers   urge 

Q 


226  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

their  girls,  and  the  girls  urge  themselves,  to  attend 
school  when  it  would  be  better  for  them  to  absent 
themselves.  4.  Physical  adolescence  is  accom- 
panied by  mental  characteristics,1  one  of  which  in 
many  cases  is  the  development  and  refinement  of 
the  sense  of  duty.  Overconscientiousness  and  fidel- 
ity to  the  requirements  of  the  school  lead  the  girl 
to  neglect  her  physical  well-being.  5.  There  is 
prevalent  conviction  that  the  subject  is  a  delicate  one 
to  discuss  and  that  consideration  of  it  would  be 
resented  by  parents  and  the  public.2 

1  The  Adolescent  Girl 

"I  wish  there  were  Someone 

Who  would  hear  confession ; 
Not  a  priest  —  I  do  not  want  to  be  told  of  my  sins ; 
Not  a  mother  —  I  do  not  want  to  give  sorrow ; 
Not  a  friend  —  she  would  not  know  enough ; 
Not  a  lover  —  he  would  be  too  partial ; 
Not  God  —  He  is  far  away. 
But  Someone  that  should  be  friend,  lover,  mother,  priest,  God, 

all  in  one. 
And  a  stranger  besides,  —  who  would  not  condemn  or  interfere. 
Who,  when  everything  is  said  from  beginning  to  end, 

Would  show  the  reason  of  it  all 

And  bid  you  go  ahead 

And  work  it  out  your  own  way."  —  Jeanne  D'Orge,  quoted  in 
Journal  of  Education,  Nov.  16,  1916. 

2  See  author's  Problems  of  the  Elementary  School,  Chap.  X,  on 
"The  Care  of  Adolescent  Girls,"  descriptive  of  experience  in 
endeavoring  to  solve  the  problem  in  one  school.     "In  five  years' 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  227 

Teachers  should  be  brought  to  a  proper  under- 
standing of  this  subject.  Their  indifference,  when  it 
exists,  is  usually  only  apparent  and  not  willful  and  is 
the  result  of  ignorance  or  of  loyalty  to  conventional 
school  traditions.  Teachers  should  know  that  a  girl 
who  has  reached  maturity  will  accomplish  a  larger 
total  of  mental  work  by  working  steadily  through  all 
but  two  or  three  days  of  her  month  than  by  work- 
ing at  high  pressure  throughout  the  entire  month. 
Moreover,  she  thus  considerably  lessens  the  chances 
of  suffering  serious  disorder  later  in  life.  A  clear 
and  frank  understanding  should  be  had  between  the 
teacher  and  the  mothers  of  her  girls.  As  a  result, 
the  mothers  realize  that  the  school  recognizes  in- 
stead of  disregards  the  matter,  and  prefers  that  the 
girls  shall  periodically  ease  up  in  their  work,  either 
by  absenting  themselves  or  by  coming  to  school 
unprepared  in  their  lessons  and  free  from  the  neces- 
sity of  performing  all  the  school  exercises. 

Teachers  should  also  be  encouraged  to  refer 
special  cases  of  threatened  breakdown  to  the  prin- 
cipal. In  any  class  of  girls,  toward  the  end  of  the 
school  year  there  are  usually  two  or  three  brighter 

time  and  in  hundreds  of  cases"  there  was  "no  single  case  of  resent- 
ment shown  by  a  mother." 


228  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

than  the  average,  whose  ambition  and  fidelity  have 
outrun  a  reasonable  expenditure  of  physical  energy. 
Many  days  before  the  end  of  the  term  they  have 
reached  a  standing  which  the  average  member  of 
the  class  will  not  reach  by  the  term's  end.  They 
may  be  profitably  advised  to  absent  themselves  for 
a  few  days  to  reestablish  their  physical  equilibrium 
by  free  play  and  exercise  in  the  open  air. 

Summary.  The  principal's  responsibility  for  the 
physical  welfare  of  his  pupils  takes  three  main 
directions.  He  must  assure  their  personal  safety 
while  they  are  in  school;  he  must  safeguard  them 
against  the  danger  of  fire  and  other  emergencies ;  and 
he  must  manage  the  school  so  that  it  ministers  to 
their  physical  care  and  development.  If  pupils 
leave  school  in  a  group  during  session  they  must 
be  under  the  responsible  guidance  of  teachers;  if 
individuals  leave  it  must  be  only  under  exceptional 
circumstances,  such  as  a  parent's  request  in  an 
emergency,  illness,  serious  disciplinary  offense,  or 
for  messenger  service.  Teachers  and  pupils  must 
be  drilled  in  safe  and  speedy  exit  from  the  building 
in  case  of  danger.  The  physical  welfare  of  pupils 
will  be  furthered  by  a  clean  building,  properly 
heated  and  ventilated;   instruction  in  physical  cul- 


THE  PUPILS'  PHYSICAL  WELFARE  229 

ture ;  regular  recesses  and  opportunity  to  leave  the 
room  at  other  times ;  measures  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  contagious  disease,  strain  of  body  and  eye,  and 
pathological  fatigue;  regulation  of  home  study; 
attention  to  physical  and  mental  defect ;  and  special 
consideration  for  the  adolescent  girl. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   PRINCIPAL   AND    THE   PUPILS'    SCHOLASTIC 
PROGRESS 

The  responsibility  of  the  principal  for  the  scho- 
lastic advancement  of  his  pupils  presents  problems 
in  organization  and  supervision  concerning :  (i)  the 
admission  of  pupils,  (2)  the  grading  of  pupils, 
(3)  the  departmental  plan,  (4)  the  rating  of  pupils, 
(5)  the  promotion  of  pupils,  (6)  the  classroom  work, 
(7)  standards  and  tests. 

1.  The  admission  of  pupils.  In  admitting  a 
new  pupil  the  principal  must  assign  him  to  that 
grade  where  he  will  find  a  fair  balance  between  his 
capacity  to  work  and  the  necessity  of  his  working. 
If  the  pupil  presents  a  certificate  of  transfer  from 
some  other  school  within  the  same  system,  profes- 
sional etiquette,'  if  not  a  specific  rule  of  the  depart- 
ment, demands  that  he  be  placed  in  the  same  grade 
as  he  was  in  the  former  school.  If  he  comes  from 
another  system,  the  principal  has  to  take  into  con- 
sideration the  difference  in  the  curricula  of  the  two 
systems. 

230 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC   PROGRESS          231 

If  the  pupil  has  no  documentary  evidence  of  his 
previous  school  record,  the  principal  must  be  guided 
by  the  individual  circumstances.  By  a  simple  oral 
or  written  test  he  may  ascertain  approximately 
both  the  pupil's  accumulated  stock  of  knowledge 
and  his  ability  to  take  up  new  work.  If  he  is  farther 
advanced  in  some  subjects  than  in  others,  he  may  be 
assigned  to  such  a  grade  as  will  credit  him  with  the 
advanced  knowledge  and  yet  make  him  put  forth 
considerable  effort  in  the  other  subjects. 

Assignment  should  be  on  trial,  and  clearly  so 
stated.  It  is  better,  as  a  rule,  to  put  a  pupil  in  the 
higher  of  two  possible  grades  with  the  understanding 
that  he  will  have  a  certain  number  of  days  in  which 
to  prove  his  ability  to  stay  there,  than  to  put  him  in 
the  lower  grade  on  the  assumption  that  he  needs  the 
"  foundation "  work.  When  he  is  given  such  a 
trial,  he  should  understand  that  no  disgrace  will 
attach  to  his  reduction  in  grade  if  later  it  is  found 
that  he  has  been  graded  too  high. 

2.  The  grading  of  pupils.  The  proper  grading 
of  pupils  is  one  of  the  unsolved  pedagogic  problems 
of  the  day.  The  "  district  school "  represents  the 
extreme  type  of  individual  instruction,  each  pupil 
practically  in  a  grade  by  himself.    The  large  city 


232  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

school  with  four  or  five  classes  —  two  hundred  or 
more  pupils  —  in  a  single  grade,  represents  the 
extreme  type  of  mass  instruction.  How,  in  a  large 
school,  with  large  classes  inevitable,  shall  the  happy 
mean  be  reached  between  individual  and  mass 
teaching? 

The  principal  should  recognize  the  broad  features  of 
the  problem,  especially  the  fact  that  the  size  of  classes 
and  the  quality  of  the  teaching  is  at  root  a  financial 
matter.  He  should,  therefore,  exercise  his  influence 
in  urging  the  public  to  more  liberal  expenditure.1  The 
practical  administrative  problem  before  him  is  how  he 
shall  get  the  most  effective  teaching  for  the  individual 
through  the  mass,  under  the  actual  conditions  and  with 
limited  equipment. 

If  a  teacher  had  but  one  pupil,  it  would  be  pos- 
sible for  her  to  give  him  instruction  adapted  one 
hundred  per  cent  to  his  needs.  With  two  pupils, 
she  would  have  to  "  average  "  her  teaching  so  that 
it   would  reach  both  pupils.     Unless  both  pupils 

1  There  is  probably  a  limit,  however,  to  the  reduction  in  size  of 
classes,  fixed  by  pedagogic  considerations.  If  twenty-four  pupils  in 
a  class  is  twice  as  good  a  condition  as  forty-eight  pupils  in  a  class, 
it  does  not  follow  that  twelve  pupils  would  be  again  twice  as 
favorable.  The  value  of  society  membership,  of  development 
along  lines  of  social  efficiency,  of  the  friction  of  mind  on  mind  that 
produces  polish,  is  not  to  be  underestimated. 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         233 

had  identically  the  same  degree  of  intelligence  and 
amount  of  preparation  the  teaching  would  unavoid- 
ably fall  below  one  hundred  per  cent  of  adaptation 
to  either  pupil.  With  a  class  of  forty  or  fifty  the 
percentage  of  course  falls  far  below,  and  the  class 
teaching  must  be  directed  toward  a  more  or  less 
imaginary  "  average  "  pupil. 

Grouping  pupils.  The  greater  the  extremes  of 
ability  among  the  pupils  in  a  class  the  less  effective 
the  mass  teaching.  Conversely,  the  more  homo- 
geneous the  class  the  more  effective  the  teaching. 
The  principal's  problem  would  seem,  then,  to  be  to 
make  the  unit-groupings  of  pupils  as  homogeneous 
as  possible. 

The  measure  of  intelligence.  The  beginning  of 
the  solution  of  the  problem  is  to  eliminate  the  pupils 
who  represent  the  extremes  of  variation.  To  do 
this  necessitates  some  means  of  measuring  intelli- 
gence and  accomplishment.1    It  is  only  in  recent 

1  These  two  measures  are  not  the  same.  For  example,  a  child 
of  intelligence  beyond  the  normal  may  happen  not  to  have  studied 
long  division;  another  child,  comparatively  stupid,  may  have 
mastered  the  topic  at  the  age  of  fifteen.  In  the  first  case,  intel- 
ligence is  high  and  achievement  of  this  particular  knowledge  low ; 
in  the  second,  intelligence  is  low,  achievement  high.  The  ac- 
complishment of  school  tasks  is  measured  by  the  usual  standards, 
examinations,  and  tests,  which  are  discussed  later  (p.  275). 


234     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

years  that  scientific  tests  of  intelligence  have  been 
devised.  The  test  now  commonly  used  is  the 
Binet.1  This  test  provides  a  scale  of  standard  nor- 
mal development  of  intelligence,  year  by  year,  in 
the  age  of  the  individual.  By  it  a  person's  intelli- 
gence year,  or  "  mental  age,"  can  be  determined. 
The  ratio  of  his  mental  age  to  his  chronological  age 
is  known  as  his  intelligence  quotient  (I.  Q.).2 

An  I.  Q.  of  ioo  is,  of  course,  theoretically  normal ; 
anything  less  would  indicate  subnormal,  and  any- 
thing more,  supernormal,  intelligence.  Practically, 
an  I.  Q.  of  from  90  to  no  is  regarded  as  average  or 
normal.  In  any  ordinary  classroom  group  it  is 
inevitable  that  the  intelligence  quotients  of  the 
pupils  vary  to  some  extent.  For  effective  teaching 
all  pupils  of  extreme  variation  in  either  direction 

1  The  original  tests  have  been  subjected  to  successive  revisions, 
some  by  Professor  Binet  himself.  The  test  is  now  usually  known 
as  the  Binet-Simon  Measuring  Scale  for  Intelligence.  For  de- 
scription of  the  Stanford  revision  and  extension,  and  guide  for  its 
use,  see  Terman,  The  Measure  of  Intelligence. 

2  Yerkes  —  Bridges  —  Hardwick,  A  Point  Scale  for  Measuring 
Mental  Activity,  presents  a  scale  consisting  of  "a  single  series  of 
tests  ...  in  connection  with  which  credit  should  be  given 
according  to  the  merit  of  the  subject's  response.',  The  authors 
are  "fully  convinced  that"  the  Binet  Scale  "has  served  its  most 
important  purpose  and  must  shortly  give  way  wholly  to  a  superior 
method." 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         235 

should  be  taken  out  of  the  group  and,  if  possible, 
placed  in  new  groups  more  nearly  homogeneous. 

Feeble-minded  pupils.  An  I.  Q.  of  below  70 
indicates  definite  feeble-mindedness.  "  Of  the 
feeble-minded,  those  between  50  and  70  I.  Q.  include 
most  of  the  morons  (high,  middle,  low),  those 
between  20  or  25  and  50  are  ordinarily  to  be  classed 
as  imbeciles,  and  those  below  20  or  25  as  idiots. 
.  .  .  School  defectives  are  practically  all  of  the 
moron  and  border-line  grades,  and  these  it  is  impor- 
tant teachers  should  be  able  to  recognize.' ' !  Pupils 
of  extreme  subnormal  intelligence  are  now,  in  many 
cities,  being  systematically  discovered  and  segregated 
in  special  classes  under  specially  trained  teachers.2 

1  Terman,  The  Measure  of  Intelligence,  p.  79. 

2  Philadelphia  uses  a  very  compact  printed  form,  summarizing 
the  tests  and  affording  blanks  for  records  "grouped  according  to 
final  revision  by  Binet  and  Simon,  191 1 ;  arranged  for  convenience 
of  examiners  in  Philadelphia  public  schools." 

Providence,  the  first  city  in  the  country  to  organize  a  class  for 
defective  children,  in  1894,  uses  a  card  "Pupil's  Record  of  Intel- 
ligence —  Terman  Revision." 

In  Grand  Rapids,  1916,  of  210  pupils  in  special  classes,  49  were 
imbeciles,  118  morons. 

In  Oakland  the  examiner's  estimate  was  that  of  1700  pupils 
examined,  9  per  cent  were  imbecile  and  idiot  and  23  per  cent 
moron. 

Of  361  pupils  in  ungraded  classes  in  the  Bronx,  New  York  City, 
there  were  189  imbeciles,  164  morons,  8  doubtful. 


236     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Bright  pupils.  In  our  school  organizations,  un- 
usually gifted  pupils  have  received  less  recognition 
than  the  subnormal.  Frequently  they  are,  in  fact, 
the  most  retarded  of  all  groups  of  pupils.  Occa- 
sional plans  have  been  tried  to  enable  the  bright 
pupils  to  pursue  the  school  course  more  rapidly  than 
the  average.  If  the  school  is  large  enough  special 
rapid-advancement  classes  can  be  organized  in 
which  pupils  accomplish  three  units  of  work  in  two 
units  of  time.  To  the  unthinking  teachers  and 
others,  these  classes  seem  particularly  easy  to  handle. 
On  the  contrary,  they  present  special  problems 
which,  in  the  interest  of  the  exceptional  pupils, 
must  be  intrusted  only  to  skillful  teachers  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  the  work. 

Average  pupils.  When  provision  has  been  made 
for  the  special  instruction  of  the  unusually  sub- 
normal and  the  unusually  supernormal,  there  re- 
main the  great  bulk  of  the  pupils,  those  whose 
I.  Q.  ranges  from  70  to,  say,  120.1  Here  is  a  varia- 
tion among  pupils  neither  feeble-minded  nor  very 
bright  which  is  wide  in  extent.     Many  schemes  of 

1  For  studies  of  variations  in  pupils'  abilities,  retardation, 
elimination,  etc.,  see  George  D.  Strayer  and  Edward  L.  Thorndike, 
Educational  Administration. 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         237 

grading  have  been  devised  with  the  view  of  enabling 
these  pupils  to  progress  at  differing  rates  of  speed. 
Among  them  are:  (a)  More  frequent  regular  pro- 
motions, three  or  four  times  a  year,  or  even  as  often 
as  every  six  weeks,  (b)  Grading  within  grades. 
Grouping  pupils  of  a  certain  grade  into  subgrades 
for  the  study  of  those  subjects  in  which  the  rate  of 
progress  is  most  likely  to  vary  with  different  pupils. 

(c)  Promotion  by  subjects,  enabling  pupils  to 
continue  studies  not  yet  mastered  without  at  the 
same    time    repeating  work  already  accomplished. 

(d)  Special  small  classes  under  competent  teachers 
for  slow-moving  or  for  fast-moving  pupils.1  (e)  Or- 
ganization of  classes  into  parallel  courses  of  differ- 

1  "Our  system  provides  for  double  promotions,  elastic  pro- 
motions, and  for  special  classes  within  a  school.  These  special 
classes  are  presided  over  by  a  coaching-teacher  whose  special 
function  it  is  to  help  both  bright  children  and  retarded  children. 
The  classes  are  not  large.  We  try  to  limit  the  number  which  a 
coaching- teacher  shall  have  in  her  room  at  any  one  time  to  eight. 
...  At  present  we  have  62  coaching-teachers  in  our  elementary 
schools  for  which  we  pay  a  total  salary  of  some  $70,000.  Our 
expense  for  the  Psychological  Clinic  may  total  $5000  more.  We 
feel  convinced  that  every  dollar  we  are  investing  in  this  depart- 
ment of  our  schools  is  an  economy  rather  than  an  expense.  Our 
Board  of  Education  indorses  it  heartily  without  a  question."  — 
Supt.  Wm.  M.  Davidson,  Pittsburgh,  quoted  by  Elizabeth  L. 
Woods,  "  Provision  for  the  Gifted  Child,"  in  Educational  Admin- 
istration and  Supervision,  vol.  3,  p.  143. 


238     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

ent  speeds  so  that  pupils  may  cross  over  from  one 
speed  to  another  at  frequent  points.1 

One  of  the  most  important  duties  of  the  prin- 
cipal is  to  place  each  pupil  in  the  class  in  which 
the  greatest  service  can  be  rendered  him.     The  large 

1  Notably  the  Cambridge  plan,  whereby  pupils  can  do  six  years' 
work  in  either  four,  five,  or  six  years.  For  description  of  the  "  new 
Cambridge  plan,"  as  well  as  of  other  plans  and  of  "fundamental 
reorganizations,"  see  Ellwood  P.  Cubberley,  Public  School  Adminis- 
tration. 

Fundamental  reorganizations,  such  as  the  "six  and  six  plan," 
are  not  here  discussed  because  of  their  broader  scope  and  the  fact 
that  there  is  a  rapidly  growing  literature  on  the  subject. 

Mr.  Frank  B.  Spaulding,  principal,  Public  School  48,  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  organizes  his  classes  so  that  each  grade  has  two  divi- 
sions. The  advanced-division  class  of  each  grade  spends  little 
time  in  reviewing  the  work  of  the  preceding  grade,  covers  the 
work  of  the  regular  grade  in  about  fourteen  weeks,  and  spends  the 
remaining  time  in  the  work  of  the  succeeding  grade. 

This  organization  enables  the  brightest  pupils  to  advance  one 
and  one  half  grades  per  term.  Thus  the  exceptional  pupil  may 
make  six  years'  work  in  four.  His  progress  would  be :  1A2,  2A1 ; 
2B2,  3B1 ;  4A2,  5A1 ;  5B2,  6B1.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dull 
pupil  may  progress  at  least  by  half  steps  and  feel  that  he  is  moving. 

The  plan  facilitates  promotions  during  the  term  as  the  differ- 
ence between  successive  grades  is  so  slight  that  a  small  amount  of 
extra  help  may  easily  bridge  the  gap. 

At  the  end  of  the  term  the  pupil  has  four  alternatives  instead  of 
two,  e.g.  from  3A1,  the  very  dull  or  much  absent  pupil  remains 
in  3A1 ;  the  dull  goes  to  3A2  ;  the  normal  to  3B1 ;  the  very  bright 
to  3B2, 


THE  PUPILS*  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS 


239 


number  of  pupils  per  teacher  makes  teaching  in  mass 
inevitable ;  nevertheless  the  individual  must  ever  be 
kept  in  mind  in  all  teaching  and  in  all  school  and 
class  management.  Teachers  must  be  constantly  re- 
mindedithat  their  classes  are  made  up  of  individuals 
and  that  they  must  not  lose  the  pupil  in  the  class. 

Mr.  Frank  B.  Stevens,  principal,  Public  School  94, 
Brooklyn,  New  York,  during  the  term  receives  from  each 
teacher  a  graph  which  clearly  presents  the  class  situation 
and  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  class  is  composed  of 
individuals.    The  following  is  a  sample : 


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240     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

3.  The  departmental  plan.  One  of  the  present- 
day  features  in  organization  closely  related  to  the 
matter  of  grading  is  the  "  departmental  "  system 
which  introduces  into  the  higher  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  the  prevailing  method  of  the 
secondary  schools  whereby  each  teacher  carries  one 
or  two  subjects  through  successive  grades,  instead 
of  teaching  all  the  subjects  of  one  grade.  Whether 
this  system  is  preferable  to  a  non-departmental 
organization  depends  largely  upon  local  conditions. 
At  least  there  is  no  unanimity  of  opinion  as  to  its 
value,  strong  claims  being  made  both  for  and 
against  its  use. 

Arguments  in  favor  of  departmental  plan.  The 
chief  arguments  advanced  in  favor  of  the  depart- 
mental plan  l  are : 

(a)  On  behalf  of  the  teacher. 

1.  The  teacher  cannot  master  all  subjects. 

This  would  seem  to  be  something  of  a  reflection  upon 
the  ability  of  the  teacher.     It  seems  a  little  absurd  to 

1  New  Orleans  requires  it.  "Departmental  teaching  shall 
be  adopted  in  all  grades  of  the  Grammar  Schools"  (5th-8th 
grades).  "A  particular  teacher,  selected  with  proper  regard  for 
his  fitness,  shall  be  employed  to  teach  in  each  department,  but 
related  branches  may  be  included  in  one  department."  Installa- 
tion in  fifth  grades  "may  be  deferred." 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         241 

talk  of  " specialists' '  in  the  subjects  of  the  elementary- 
school  curriculum,  particularly  where  the  more  " special" 
subjects  of  music,  drawing,  etc.,  are  supervised,  if  not 
taught,  by  trained  artists.  A  specialist  in  arithmetic? 
A  specialist  in  spelling?  In  secondary  and  college  edu- 
cation the  student  chooses  his  program  from  among 
a  host  of  optional  studies,  and  it  would  be  unrea- 
sonable, of  course,  to  expect  any  one  teacher  to  carry, 
for  instance,  Greek,  French,  calculus,  biology,  rhetoric, 
and  economics.  In  the  elementary  school,  on  the 
contrary,  the  pupil  takes  the  "  whole  dose,"  and  it 
seems  not  unreasonable  to  expect  the  teacher  to  do 
the  same. 

2.  The  teacher's  preparation  is  thorough  and 
easier. 

Being  concerned  with  but  one  subject,  her  mind  can 
readily  prepare  at  different  levels  along  the  same  line  of 
thought;  and  the  subject  being  that  in  which,  pre- 
sumably, she  is  most  interested,  intensive  study  will 
result. 

3.  High  scholarship  in  the  teacher  is  encouraged. 

4.  Teachers  may  become  advanced  specialists. 

This  opens  the  way  for  the  promotion  of  elementary 
school  teachers  into  the  high  schools,  and  thus  gives  them 
added  stimulus  and  incentive  to  enthusiastic  work, 
which  reacts  in  its  benefit  to  the  pupils. 


242     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

(b)  On  behalf  of  the  pupils. 

5.  The  teachers  must  prepare. 

As  each  set  of  pupils  meets  each  teacher  but  once  in  the 
day,  the  teacher  cannot  afford  to  leave  a  single  period 
unprepared.  Teaching  the  same  class  all  day,  she  might 
slight  one  or  two  lessons  without  its  being  noticed  by  the 
pupils. 

6.  The  teaching  is  more  inspiring. 

The  teacher  is  interested  in  her  "specialty"  and  is 
herself  inspired  by  her  subject  and  by  the  change  of 
classes. 

7.  The  teaching  is  more  effective. 

The  teacher  can  follow  up  the  individual  pupil  from 
grade  to  grade  through  his  successive  difficulties  in  the 
subject  she  teaches. 

8.  Pupils  come  in  contact  with  many  minds. 

They  are  relieved  from  the  tedium  of  listening  to  one 
voice  for  five  or  six  hours  daily  and  of  reacting  con- 
stantly toward  the  same  personality.  The  following 
colloquy  between  a  boy  and  his  chum  was  overheard 
at  promotion  time:  "Who's  your  teacher  next  term?" 
"Aw,  Brown."  "Well,  what's  the  matter  with  Brown? 
She's  all  right."  "Sure,  she's  all' right,  but  I  had  her 
three  terms  and  I'm  sick  of  looking  at  her." 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         243 

9.  The  transition  from  elementary  to  high  school 
is  easier. 

And  yet  the  transition  from  single-class  instruction 
to  departmental  has  to  be  made  sometime.  Shall  it  be 
made  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  school  year,  when  it  involves 
a  much  larger  number  of  pupils,  or  at  the  end  of  the 
eighth  year  ? 

(c)  On  behalf  of  the  administration. 

10.  The  work  of  the  school  may  be  planned  more 
systematically  and  completely,  and  be  better  unified. 

The  work  in  each  subject  is  better  unified  when  the 
one  teacher  carries  out  the  plan  for  merging  each  term's 
work  into  the  next,  than  when  the  transition  from  term 
to  term  is  made  by  several  teachers. 

n.   There  is  a  saving  of  time  and  effort. 

A  maximal  amount  of  energy  is  secured  in  the  service 
of  any  group  of  teachers  when  they  are  working  in  direc- 
tions most  agreeable  to  them. 

12.   Rooms  may  be  equipped  for  each  subject. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  substantial  gain  made  under 
this  plan.  All  the  teaching  of  history  can  be  done  in  a 
single  room  fitted  with  charts,  maps,  historical  library, 
etc.,  and  a  single  collection  of  this  material  suffices  for 
several  classes.  Similarly,  a  room  for  geography  may 
have  its  equipment  of  globes,  atlases,  gazetteers,  mold- 


244     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

ing  boards,  stereoscopes,  and  views ;  the  room  for  draw- 
ing, its  models,  casts,  artist's  materials;  the  room  for 
mathematics,  its  weights  and  measures,  charts,  models, 
statistical  reference-books;  and  so  on  through  all  the 
subjects  of  the  curriculum. 

Arguments     against     the     departmental     plan. 

Against  the  plan  it  may  be  said : 

(a)  On  behalf  of  the  teacher. 

i.    It  tends  to  narrow  the  teacher. 

A  teacher  devoting  herself  day  in  and  day  out  to  a 
single  subject  is  prone  sooner  or  later  to  run  in  the  single 
groove  and  to  lose  that  interest  in  the  varied  things  of 
life  which  makes  for  general  culture.  Proper  supervi- 
sion by  the  principal  ought,  however,  to  prevent  such  a 
condition. 

(b)  On  behalf  of  the  pupils. 

2.  The  subjects  are  taught  instead  of  the  pupils. 

There  is  danger  that  the  child  be  lost  sight  of,  and 
the  subject  become  the  center  of  the  teacher's  interest. 
She  becomes  the  teacher  of  "  arithmetic "  instead  of  the 
teacher  of  the  "  Seven  A  Boys." 

3.  Tne  personal  care  of  pupils  is  lessened. 

Each  teacher  has  four  or  five  times  as  many  pupils 
as  she  would  have  under  the  other  plan.  She  is  thus 
"spread  thin"  over  the  classes,  and  her  knowledge  of 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS  245 

and  attention  to  individual  pupils  and  their  needs  can  be 
but  a  fourth  or  fifth  of  what  it  otherwise  would  be. 
Again,  as  a  result  of  the  division  of  responsibility,  there 
is  danger  that  each  teacher  may  take  the  view  that  she 
must  not  show  special  interest  in  a  pupil,  either  because 
the  other  teachers  might  resent  it,  or  on  the  assumption 
that  some  other  teacher  is  probably  taking  the  necessary 
interest. 

4.  The  demands  of  specialists  are  excessive. 
Each  teacher,  held  strictly  responsible  for  results  in  a 

given  subject,  pushes  her  pupils  to  the  utmost.  What- 
ever they  may  do  in  their  other  studies,  they  must  do  her 
work.  So,  with  all  the  teachers  urging  in  this  way,  the 
demand  upon  the  time  and  energy  of  the  pupils  amounts 
to  an  overpowering  total.  This  danger  should  be 
avoided  by  careful  supervision,  whereby  the  principal 
has  frequent  conferences  with  teachers,  issues  definite 
directions  limiting  the  amount  of  work  assignable,  and 
assures  himself  that  his  directions  are  followed. 

5.  The  studying  is  done  largely  outside  the  class. 

Each  teacher  jealously  guards  all  the  time  assigned 
to  her  subject  from  encroachment  for  purposes  of  study. 
This,  again,  is  a  matter  for  intelligent  supervision. 

(c)  On  behalf  of  the  administration. 

6.  The  making  of  the  time  schedule  is  difficult. 
So  many  factors  are  involved.    In  a  large  school,  mak- 
ing the  schedule  requires  from  the  most  expert  of  prin- 


246     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

cipals  the  expenditure  of  an  amount  of  energy  possibly 
disproportionate  to  the  results  attained. 

7.  The  time  schedule  is  unsatisfactory. 

The  factor  of  fatigue  has  to  be  almost  entirely  neg- 
lected. If  the  same  teacher  has  to  conduct  classes  in 
mathematics  throughout  a  school  day,  half  of  the  classes 
are  bound  to  be  pushed  to  hard  exertion  at  a  time  when 
the  natural  "curve  of  vitality"  is  at  or  near  a  minimum. 
The  teacher  also  is  subject  to  greater  fatigue  strain. 

8.  Disorder  of  pupils  is  encouraged. 

Leaving  pupils  unsupervised,  if  it  is  the  teachers  who 
change  rooms,  or  the  periodic  passing  of  pupilsLfrom  room 
to  room,  if  the  pupils  change  rooms,  tends  to  confusion, 
if  not  to  actual  disorder.  But  this,  too,  is  a  matter  for 
supervision  and  regulation.  The  relaxation  gained  by 
pupils  by  a  few  minutes'  change  of  position  ought  to  re- 
act favorably  upon  their  conduct  during  the  succeeding 
period. 

9.  Correlation  is  secured  with  difficulty,  if  at  all. 

This  is  an  offset  to  advantage  10.  Strong  coordina- 
tion of  work  from  grade  to  grade  is  gained  at  the  expense 
of  proper  correlation. 

10.  It  is  difficult  to  secure  competent  substitutes. 

Almost  any  substitute  can  go  into  a  class  and  "hold 
it"  after  a  fashion  for  a  day  or  two.  The  same  person 
would  have  much  greater  difficulty  in  attempting  to  carry 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         247 

the  work  of  a  subject  in  several  classes.  Regular  teachers 
of  lower  grades  can  be  understudied  for  such  emergencies. 
The  superintendent  of  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the 
United  States  abandoned  the  departmental  plan  on  ac- 
count of  this  single  disadvantage,  which  in  that  city 
proved  serious. 

11.  The  family  spirit  of  the  school  is  weakened. 

The  pupils  in  the  elementary  school  are  children,  and 
though  a  large  percentage  of  those  in  the  last  two  years 
are  adolescent,  they  still  need  the  guiding  hand  and 
personal  touch  of  a  friendly  teacher  who  shall  be  all-in- 
all  to  them  —  who  shall  be  as  the  law  assumes,  in  loco 
parentis. 

12.  Administrative  energy  expended  is  out  of 
proportion  to  the  results  gained. 

A  large  amount  of  energy  is  given  out  by  principal 
and  teachers  in  making  the  plan  "  work."  More  thought 
in  the  construction  of  the  program  and  oversight  in 
administering  it,  more  frequent  conferences  with  teachers, 
more  detailed  supervision  of  pupils'  conduct,  more  prob- 
lems of  adjustment  —  all  these  are  factors  in  the  amount 
of  time  and  energy  expended  by  the  principal.  If  the 
results  gained  are  commensurate,  then  of  course  their 
cost  is  not  to  be  considered,  and  will  not  be  by  the  con- 
scientious principal ;  but  if  they  are  not,  then  the  school 
will  profit  more  by  the  principal's  doing  of  other  things. 


248     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Using  the  departmental  plan.  In  working  on 
the  departmental  plan,1  compliance  with  the  follow- 
ing principles  will  probably  increase  its  effectiveness : 

i.   Each  teacher  must  have  more  than  one  subject. 

This  will  help  to  answer  criticisms  i,  2,  4,  and  5. 

2.  The  teachers  must  be  in  harmony  with  one 
another  and  fairly  well  satisfied  with  their  assign- 
ment of  subjects. 

If  there  are  discordant  elements  among  the  teachers, 
it  would  be  well  to  postpone  operating  the  plan  until 
the  discordant  ones  can  be  eliminated.  So  far  as  it  is 
possible,  each  teacher  should  have  subjects  of  her  own 
choice,  subjects  in  which  she  is  especially  interested  and 
subjects  which  she  can  teach  well. 

3.  The  respective  advantages  of  having  the 
pupils  change  rooms  and  having  the  teachers  change 
must  be  determined. 

By  the  former,  the  advantage  of  specially  equipped 
rooms  is  gained ;  by  the  latter,  the  advantage  of  less  con- 
fusion in  the  corridors.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  the 
former  outweighs  the  latter. 

4.  Each  class  should  have  a  "  class  teacher " 
for  general  guidance. 

1  See  Leon  W.  Goldrich,  "The  Preparation  of  a  Departmental 
Program,"  in  School  Work,  vol.  3,  p.  404. 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         249 

The  class  teacher  should  be  with  "her"  pupils  at  the 
opening  and  at  the  closing  periods  and  for  some  other 
considerable  length  of  time.  It  also  seems  advisable 
that  she  have  her  own  class  during  the  entire  afternoon 
session.  This  teacher  should  be  responsible  for  the  class 
records,  and  through  her  efforts  objections  3  and  11,  and 
perhaps  4  and  5,  ought  to  be  met. 

5.  The  principal  must  arrange  for  the  proper 
rating  of  pupils. 

If  a  single  rating  in  all  subjects  is  required,  each  sub- 
ject must  be  "  weighted  "  in  proportion  to  its  importance 
and  the  number  of  periods,  before  calculating  averages. 
Deportment  may  be  rated  on  a  uniform  rather  than  an 
average  basis.  If  three  teachers  rate  a  pupil  Excellent, 
and  one  rates  him  Bad  it  seems  illogical  to  say  that  his 
deportment  was  Satisfactory. 

6.  Special  records  of  attendance  must  be  kept, 
so  that  no  pupil  may  "  cut  "  any  period  unnoticed. 

7.  There  are  advantages  in  omitting  the  highest 
grade  from  the  departmental  plan. 

It  gives  an  opportunity  for  the  "graduating"  teachers 
to  correlate  and  round  off  the  work  of  the  various  teachers 
in  the  grades  below,  and  to  give  a  finishing  touch  of 
personal  influence  to  the  pupils,  providing,  of  course, 
that  these  teachers  are  expertly  qualified  for  this  special 
work. 


250     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

4.  The  rating  of  pupils.  However  the  principal 
may  regard  the  subject  of  marks,  estimates,  and 
ratings,  in  its  academic  aspects,  he  faces  the  practical 
fact  that  in  every  system  of  schools  some  uniform 
provision  is  made  for  the  periodic  rating  of  pupils 
and  the  reporting  of  ratings  to  parents.  In  some 
cities  ratings  are  required  in  extended  detail,  a 
percentage  mark  being  given  in  each  of  many  sub- 
jects of  the  curriculum;  in  others,  a  mere  state- 
ment as  to  whether  the  pupiPs  work  has  been  satis- 
factory or  not  is  all  that  is  required.  The  tendency 
seems  to  be  away  from  arithmetical  ratings,  and 
toward  a  few  adjectives  or  arbitrary,  literal  char- 
acters which  represent  various  degrees  of  proficiency ; 
away  from  a  detailed  statement  accounting  for  every 
subject  studied,  and  toward  a  general  statement  as 
to  the  character  of  the  pupiPs  work  as  a  whole. 
In  some  cases  the  pupiPs  effort  is  rated  separately 
from  his  proficiency,  and  in  nearly  all  systems  the 
pupiPs  deportment  is  given  a  separate  rating. 

Whatever  the  prescribed  system  under  which  the 
principal  works,  there  are  a  few  general  considera- 
tions which  will  influence  him  in  carrying  out  its 
provisions. 

On  the  mechanical  side,  the  principal  must  secure 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         2$t 

promptness  and  accuracy  in  the  records  made  by  the 
teachers.  If  the  records  are  due  at  a  stated  time  of 
the  week  or  month,  the  principal  must  see  that  they 
are  recorded  by  that  time.  It  is  his  further  duty  to 
make  sure  that  teachers  and  pupils  clearly  under- 
stand the  meaning  and  significance  of  the  rating- 
marks  employed. 

Report  cards.  Report  cards  are  usually  sent  to 
the  parents  periodically  for  them  to  sign  and  return 
to  the  school.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  card 
is  but  a  transcript,  and  is  not  the  original  record; 
therefore,  the  record  by  the  teacher  must  be  made 
first  and  the  report  card  written  afterward.  As  the 
card  is  a  direct  message  from  school  to  home,  its 
appearance  should  create  a  standard.1 

The  principal  may  often  enhance  the  importance 
of  the  ratings  in  the  minds  of  pupils  by  distributing 
the  "  cards  "  himself.    The  judicious  word  of  praise 

1  Mr.  Frank  B.  Spaulding,  principal,  Public  School  48,  Brooklyn, 
New  York,  uses  this  form  to  the  parent : 

" has  lost  h report  card. 

This  is  a  serious  matter  as  pupils  sometimes  make  use  of  extra 
cards  to  conceal  from  parents  a  record  of  poor  work.  Please  sign 
both  the  enclosed  card  and  this  letter  and  see  that  the  card  that 
your  child  brings  home  each  month  is  marked  'Duplicate.'  If 
the  original  card  should  be  found,  please  return  it  to  the 
teacher." 


252     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

to  the  praiseworthy  and  the  word  of  comment  quietly 

spoken  to  the  unsatisfactory,  have  their  effect.     If 

properly  handled  in  this  way,  the  report  card  is 

given  a  dignity  and  importance  that  are  valuable; 

on  the  other  hand,  any  system  of  distribution  by  the 

principal  should  be  so  flexible  as  to  take  into  account 

conditions  local  to  any  class,  or  temporary  conditions 

applicable  to  all  classes,  which  may  make  it  advisable 

that  the  distribution  should  be  made  by  the  teacher. 

Occasionally  there  is  difficulty  in   securing  the 

return  of  report  cards  with  the  parent's  signature. 

If,  as  is  usually  the  fact,  this  is  the  fault  of  the  pupil, 

the  teacher  must  follow  up  the  individual  case  so 

closely  as  to  prevent  tardy  return  of  the  cards 

becoming   a  habit.     But  if  the  fault  is  the  parent's, 

it  must  be  remembered  that  the  school  cannot  compel 

the  parent  to  sign  his  name.1    The  safest  attitude 

to  take  is  that  the  card  is  issued  as  a  courtesy,  as  a 

transcript  of  the  record  and  not  as  the  record  itself, 

on  the  assumption  that  the  parent  is  interested  in 

the  school  progress  of  his  child;    consequently,  if 

the  parent  refuses  to  sign  the  card,  as  a  few  do  on 

1  Worcester  uses  a  printed  form  notifying  the  parent  that  his 
child  "is  in  danger  of  receiving  '  D  ',"  etc.  An  acknowledgment 
form  is  attached,  "Tear  off  on  this  line  and  return  this  part  to  the 
Principal  at  once." 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS  253 

the  ground  that  the  rating  is  unfair  and  with  the 
curious  theory  that  a  refusal  may  in  some  way 
alter  the  record,  the  school  may  accept  it  as  meaning 
that  the  parent  does  not  appreciate  the  courtesy  and 
that  no  further  cards  need  be  issued  to  his  child. 

Ratings  by  teachers.  As  to  the  ratings  them- 
selves, the  principal  must  secure  judicious  marking 
by  the  teachers.  Teachers  must  keep  in  mind  that 
ratings  usually  should  not  be  based  upon  written 
memoranda  alone,  certainly  not  upon  written 
"  tests  "  alone ;  that  a  brief  absence  need  not  neces- 
sarily interfere  seriously  with  a  pupil's  proficiency 
and  progress ;  that  relative  excellence  of  work  is  what 
is  to  be  recorded  and  not  an  absolute  condition 
measured  against  perfection ;  and  that  under  ordi- 
nary conditions,  if  a  class  as  a  whole  does  not  do 
satisfactory  work,  it  is  the  teacher's  fault. 

In  School  Credit  for  Home  Work,  L.  R.  Alderman  elabo- 
rates the  idea  of  giving  school  credit  to  a  pupil  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  performance  of  home  duties,  such  as  getting 
ready  for  school  on  time,  going  to  bed  regularly,  splitting 
wood,  building  fires,  caring  for  animals,  doing  errands, 
cleaning,  sweeping,  etc.  "  Should  not  the  school  be 
simply  a  group  of  people  come  together  for  improvement 
with  the  teacher  as  their  best  friend,  ready  to  discuss  and 
promote  everything  that  seems  worth  while?" 


254  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 


The  principal  will  have  to  inspect  ratings  peri- 
odically to  correct  lapses  along  these  lines.1     Par- 

1  If  teachers  are  required  to  file  a  summary  of  their  ratings  it 
impresses  upon  them  their  distribution  of  the  grades  of  rating. 
I    Mr.  Henry  Hein,  principal,   Public   School   40,  Bronx,  New 
York,  uses  the  following  form,  monthly: 

Report  Cards    of  class 

[     i 

Room 

No.  on  Reg 


Teacher 


No.  Cards. 


DATE 


NO.  OF 

EFF. 

PROF. 

DEP. 

DEFICIENCIES  IN: 

A 

ARITH. 

B+ 

COM  P. 

B 

COOK. 

C 

DRAW. 

D 

GEOG. 

TOTAL 

GRAM. 

HIST. 

PENMAN 

§EW.-CON. 

LITER. 

PHYS.TR 

SHOJ^j 

r~- 

MUSIC 

READ. 

SPELL 

NATURE 

SCI. 

MEMORY 

Remarks 

(Over) 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS 


255 


ticularly,  he  must  warn  teachers  against  permitting 
pupils    to   suffer   an    unjustifiable    drop    in    their 

Philadelphia  carries  the  record  through  the  school  year  on  a  card 
form  as  follows : 


ROOM  NO 

GRADE 

CO 

2 

cc 

< 

AC 

-1 
O 
O 

X 

o 

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q 

z 

Q 

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CO 

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O 

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cc 

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S.|. 

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cc.^ 
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cc 

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-• 

256     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

ratings  at  the  beginning  of  each  new  term.  The 
pupil  is  promoted  with  a  maximum  rating,  and  then 
his  new  teacher,  in  order  to  impress  him  with  the 
fact  that  now  that  he  is  in  her  class  he  must  work, 
gives  him  a  low  rating  the  first  month,  whereas  he 
has  actually  worked  more  faithfully  and  effectively 
than  in  the  previous  month.  The  strange  environ- 
ment of  the  new  class  has  made  its  impression  on  the 
pupil  and  he  has  probably  made  a  more  or  less  con- 
scious effort  to  adjust  himself  to  it ;  the  rating  which 
seems  to  fail  to  appreciate  this  effort  affects  the  pupil 
as  an  injustice  and  discourages  continued  effort. 

Where  the  system  provides  a  separate  mark  for 
effort  and  proficiency,  the  principal  must  look  out 
for  such  cases  as  a  pupil  with  excellent  effort  and 
very  poor  results,  or  a  pupil  with  unsatisfactory 
effort  and  excellent  results.  In  either  case  it  would 
seem  that  the  pupil  is  misgraded, —  too  high  in  the 
former  case  and  too  low  in  the  latter. 

5.  The  promotion  of  pupils.  Certain  uniform 
regulations  regarding  the  promotion  of  pupils  are  in 
force  in  every  system  of  schools.  Promotions  may  be 
made  regularly  at  the  end  of  a  "  term  "  varying  in 
length  in  different  cities ;  the  most  general  practice 
provides  for  two  terms  in  each  year.    There  are 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         257 

arguments  for  and  against  a  short  term,  but  as  the 
principal  has  little  to  do  with  fixing  the  period,  they 
are  not  considered  here.  The  method  of  determining 
promotions  is  in  some  systems  fixed  even  to  details, 
but  usually  considerable  latitude  is  allowed  the  prin- 
cipals and  teachers. 

A  few  suggestions  are  offered  on  the  general 
subject. 

a.  Promotions  should  not  be  based  solely  upon 
final  examinations  or  tests,  either  written  or  oral. 
Many  a  hard-working,  conscientious  pupil  of  nerv- 
ous temperament  is  less  able  to  pass  successfully 
a  written  examination  than  some  happy-go-lucky, 
careless  classmate. 

b.  The  "  educational  value  "  of  the  various  sub- 
jects of  the  curriculum  should  be  taken  into  account 
and  the  pupiPs  work  in  each  given  proportionate 
credit.  An  arithmetical  average  of  a  pupiPs  results 
in  English,  mathematics,  history,  geography,  draw- 
ing, and  music,  for  instance,  might  not  fairly  repre- 
sent his  all-round  ability,  for  a  high  music  rating 
due  to  native  talent  in  that  particular  direction 
might  more  than  offset  a  low  rating  in  English  with 
its  subtopics  of  composition,  reading,  memorizing, 
spelling,  and  grammar. 


258  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

c.  Probably  the  best  plan  of  promotion  is  to 
forward  all  pupils  whom  the  teacher  regards  as 
unquestionably  ready,  and  to  give  a  written  ex- 
amination to  settle  the  cases  regarding  which  the 
teacher  is  in  doubt.  Even  if  the  practice  is  to 
promote  upon  the  teacher's  estimate  alone,  the 
pupil  should  have  the  right  of  appeal  and  the  right 
to  demand  a  formal  test  of  his  fitness.  It  is,  there- 
fore, wise  for  the  principal  to  anticipate  such  appeals 
by  giving  a  formal  examination  to  all  pupils  regarded 
by  the  teachers  as  deficient.  The  record  of  such 
examinations,  together  with  the  pupils'  answer 
papers,  should,  of  course,  be  preserved,  so  that 
when  an  appeal  is  made  the  principal  is  armed  with 
documentary  evidence. 

d.  A  pupil  should  be  promoted:  (1)  when  he 
has  satisfactorily  completed  the  work  of  his  grade  ; 
(2)  when  he  is  prepared  to  do  the  work  of  the  suc- 
ceeding grade.  A  pupil  may  not  have  complied 
with  (1)  on  account  of  absence  or  other  circum- 
stances, and  yet  comply  with  (2). 

Whether  misconduct  should  operate  to  prevent 
the  promotion  of  a  pupil  is  perhaps  a  debatable 
question.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  it  should  not,  but 
that  it  does ;  that  is,  as  a  matter  of  record  a  pupil 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         259 

who  has  misbehaved  and  nevertheless  has  been 
proficient  in  his  school  work  should  not  be  kept  back 
by  his  misbehavior;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  his  mis- 
behavior if  at  all  serious  will  operate  to  prevent  his 
reaching  satisfactory  proficiency.1 

It  is  also  a  question  as  to  whether  a  pupil  should 
ever  be  officially  promoted  on  "  length  of  service  " 
alone.2  It  may  be  said  that  a  pupil  who  has 
already  spent  two  half-year  terms  in  a  grade  without 
getting  satisfactory  results  ought,  for  his  own  good, 
to  be  held  back  to  attempt  the  work  of  that  grade 
until  he  succeeds  in  mastering  it.  If  he  has  spent 
two  terms  in  a  grade  where  learning  to  read  is  the 
chief  business,  probably  he  should  stay  the  third 
term  in  order  to  attend  to  that  business.  If,  how- 
ever, he  has  spent  two  terms  in  one  grade,  and  has 
accomplished  satisfactory  results  in  some  subjects 
and  has  fallen  behind  in  others,  he  probably  should 

1  Cincinnati  recognizes  conduct  as  a  factor:  "A  satisfactory 
standing  in  daily  work,  with  good  deportment,  shall  be  accepted 
as  evidence  of  the  ability  of  pupils  to  do  successfully  the  work  of 
the  next  higher  grade."  —  34,  sec.  1. 

2  "  Any  pupil  having  been  twice  over  a  course  shall  be  permitted 
to  pass  to  the  next  grade,  provided  his  record  shows  that  he  has 
been  present  at  least  75  per  cent  of  the  days  of  the  term  and  his 
application  and  deportment  have  been  satisfactory."  —  Syra- 
cuse, 74. 


260     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

go  ahead.  If  he  is  an  all-round  dull  pupil  who  has 
already  lost  interest  in  the  subject  matter  of  the 
grade  and  who  has  gotten  from  that  grade  and 
from  that  teacher  all  that  he  can  ever  get,  he  prob- 
ably should  be  promoted  to  a  new  field.  He  may  be 
passed  along  in  this  way  without  serious  injury  until 
he  reaches  the  legal  age  for  leaving  for  work,  but  a 
diploma  or  certificate  of  graduation  ought  not  to  be 
given  him  on  such  a  basis  of  continued  promotions. 
The  word  probably  has  been  used  advisedly.  The 
individual  case  should  be  considered  every  time. 
The  formulation  of  any  inflexible  rule  that  no  pupil 
should  remain  in  a  grade  three  terms,  or  the  contrary 
rule  that  no  pupil  should  be  promoted  who  has  not 
rigidly  qualified  for  promotion,  would  react  un- 
favorably upon  the  life  of  the  school,  and  should 
be  avoided.  A  pupil  who  is  much  over  age  and  has 
not  earned  promotion  may  properly  be  put  forward 
on  the  ground  that  a  large  factor  in  his  failure  is 
his  sensitiveness  to  the  fact  that  he  is  out  of  his 
social  set,  a  sensitiveness  which  is  natural  and  more 
commonly  present  than  many  teachers  recognize. 

Such  a  pupil  may  be  kept  officially  in  a  certain  grade 
and  permitted  to  share  the  activities  of  one  or  more 
higher-grade  classes.    He  and  his  fellow  pupils  will  un- 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         261 

derstand  that  he  is  not  gaining  a  standing  to  which  he 
is  not  entitled.  He  will,  however,  be  getting  the  most 
that  the  school  can  give  him,  without  compromising  with 
his  " record.' ' 

e.  A  pupil  may  be  promoted  "  on  trial "  on  the 
ground  that  his  shortcomings  were  due  to  unavoid- 
able absence  and  that  his  general  ability  is  such  as 
to  warrant  the  belief  that  he  can  make  up  his  defi- 
ciency and  maintain  standing  in  the  new  grade.1 

1  The  principal  of  Public  School  9,  Brooklyn,  New  York,  uses 
the  following  form  to  parent : 

Your has  been  promoted  to 

on  "condition,"  being  deficient  in 

and  weak  in This  advance  is  with  the 

understanding  that  if does  not  give 

evidence  of  earnest  effort  to  become  proficient  in  these  subjects 

will  be  returned  to former  grade. 

We  ask  your  hearty  cooperation  in  securing  regular  habits  of 
home  preparation  and  attendance  at  school.  Home  work  in  the 
7th  and  8th  years  should  take  from  one  hour  to  an  hour  and  a  half, 
and  in  the  5th  and  6th  years  not  less  than  one  hour.  This  work  is 
assigned  for  each  day  in  the  week.  Any  failure  to  bring  home  this 
amount  of  work  should  be  promptly  reported  to 

Yours  respectfully, 
William  M.  Rainey, 
Principal. 


Class  Teacher. 
Please  acknowledge  receipt  of  this  or  return  with  your  signature. 


Parent's  Signature. 


262  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

/.  It  should  be  possible  to  promote  pupils  occa- 
sionally during  a  term,  but  under  normal  conditions 
this  should  be  done  sparingly.  It  is  better  to  pro- 
mote a  bright  pupil  at  the  beginning  of  the  term  on 
trial  than  to  keep  him  in  the  lower  grade  and  then 
later  in  the  term  "  jump  "  him  ahead. 

g.  It  should  be  possible  to  reduce  a  pupil  in  grade 
at  any  time,  but  this,  too,  should  be  a  measure 
largely  of  a  disciplinary  character  (disciplinary  in 
the  broader  sense  of  the  term),  and  to  be  used  spar- 
ingly. It  should  be  done  only  (i)  after  ample 
evidence,  written  the  best,  that  the  pupil's  lack  of 
effort  justifies  it,  (2)  after  conference  or,  at  least, 
attempted  conference  with  the  parent,  (3)  with  the 
parent's  consent,  or  better,  at  his  request.  A  good 
plan  is  to  make  "  trial "  promotions  of  all  doubt- 
ful pupils  at  the  beginning  of  the  term,  so  that  it 
is  clearly  understood  that  promotion  has  not  been 
earned,  and  that  if  the  pupil's  further  effort  does 
not  justify  his  retention  in  the  advanced  grade  he 
is  to  be  replaced  in  the  lower  grade  without 
question. 

h.  In  promoting  pupils,  even  in  a  large  school, 
the  best  disposition  of  each  pupil  should  be  made. 
It  is  often  the  case  that  the  best  interests  of  a  pupil 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS 


263 


demand  that,  after  promotion,  he  shall  be  in  a 
certain  class  of  his  grade:  he  may  have  friends 
who  are  a  source  of  inspiration  to  him  and  with 
whom  he  should  be  continued ;  he  may  have  com- 
panions from  whom  it  is  wise  to  detach  him;  he 
may  have  a  temperament  that  will  be  better  under- 
stood by  one  teacher  than  by  another ;  he  may  be 
better  off  in  a  mixed  class  than  in  a  class  composed 
only  of  his  own  sex,  or  vice  versa;  etc.  Similarly, 
if  he  fails  of  promotion,  his  best  interests  may 
demand  that  he  should  remain  with  the  teacher  he 
has  had,  or  that  he  be  transferred  to  another  class 
and  teacher  in  the  grade.  All  of  these  individual 
matters  should  receive  attention;  but  in  a  school 
of  hundreds  or  thousands  of  pupils  this  can  be  done 
only  by  careful  and  systematic  planning. 

The  following  plan  is  suggested :    Teachers  enter  rec- 
ords of  promotional  examinations  on  sheets  arranged 

thus: 

EXAMINATION  FOR  PROMOTION 

Class 19 


NAME 


Days 

Absent 


Age 


Grades 
Repeated 


Term 
Rating 


Subjects 


Exam. 
Av. 


Dispo- 
sition 


264     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

1  Each  teacher  files  this  record  with  the  principal  only 
after  personal  conference  with  him ;  together  they  decide, 
as  to  each  pupil,  whether  he  shall  be  promoted  regu- 
larly, promoted  on  trial,  or  held  back.  The  decision  is 
entered  in  the  last  column. 

The  completion  of  this  record  determines  the  promotion 
figures  for  each  class.  Each  teacher  files  two  sheets, 
printed,  let  us  say,  in  black,  the  first  of  which  is 
arranged  thus : 


PROMOTED 
JBoys,  Girls,  from  Room. 


No. 


Name  According  to       Term 


Rank 


Av. 


No. 


Name  According  to 
Rank 


Term 
Av. 


The  second  of  the  two  sheets  has  the  same  arrange- 
ment but  is  headed  Non-Promoted. 

If  the  teacher  thinks  a  particular  disposition  should  be 
made  of  a  pupil,  such  as  not  promoting  him  to  a  mixed 
class  or  keeping  him  in  her  own  class  instead  of  leaving 
him  back  with  another  teacher,  she  notes  her  suggestion 
opposite  the  name  on  the  Black  Sheet. 

From  the  Black  Sheets,  the  principal  makes  entries 
in  columns  3,  4,  5,  8,  11,  and  14,  in  the  following 


THE  PUPILS*  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS 


265 


SCHOOL   PROMOTION  RECORD 


.19. 


a 


Sal 

ass 

3  B  a 
ago 


Promoted 


Boys 


Girls 


Left  Back 


Boys 


Girls 


14 


15 


16 


Register 
after  Promotion 


Boys 


18 


19 


Girls 


By  adding  the  total  Non-Promotions  in  all  the  classes  of 
a  given  grade  to  the  total  promotions  from  all  the  classes 
of  the  grade  below,  he  obtains  the  total  new  register  x 
for  the  grade.  He  apportions  this  equally  among  the 
classes  of  the  grade  and  thus  gets  entries  for  columns  17 
and  20.  He  then  apportions  the  boys  in  5  to  the  differ- 
ent rooms  to  which  it  is  possible  to  send  them  and  makes 
the  corresponding  entries  in  6  and  7 ;  the  girls  in  8  are 

1  In  many  cities  the  term  "belonging"  is  used  instead  of  register. 
Each  city  has  its  own  definition  of  the  terms,  e.g.  Baltimore: 
"The  number  of  pupils  'belonging'  shall  be  determined  in  the 
following  manner :  A  child  who  has  been  absent  six  consecutive 
half -days  (three  in  case  of  half -day  pupils)  shall  on  the  seventh  or 
fourth  half-day  be  marked  'dropped'  on  the  class  teacher's  records. 
When  he  returns  he  shall  be  marked  'reentered'  on  the  records. 
Absence  caused  by  death,  removal  or  transfer  shall  cause  the  name 
to  be  dropped  at  once."  —  VT,  13. 


266     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 


similarly  apportioned  and  entries  made  under  9  and  10, 
etc.,  completing  the  record. 

He  next  checks  the  names  on  the  Black  Sheets  from 
the  figures  on  the  School  Promotion  Record,  indicating 
the  rooms  that  they  are  to  be  sent  to,  and  returns  the 
Black  Sheets  to  the  teachers  together  with  a  set  of,  say, 
Red  Sheets  arranged  thus : 


Boys, 


PROMOTED 

.Girls,  from  Room. 


to  Room_. 


No.      Names.  Alphabetically     Born 


Residence 


Parent's  Name 


and  the  same,  headed  Non-Promoted. 

There  will  be  one  sheet  for  each  different  transfer  of 
pupils,  making,  in  practice,  from  two  to  perhaps  eight 
sheets  for  each  set.  The  teacher  keeps  the  Black  Sheets 
and  returns  the  Red  Sheets.  The  Principal  reassembles 
the  Red  Sheets,  pasting  all  of  those  of  the  same  "To 
Room',  together,  and  sends  these,  which  show  the  rolls 
of  the  new  classes,  to  the  respective  teachers.  At  pro- 
motion time  each  teacher  promotes  from  her  Black 
Sheets  and  receives  and  checks  up  her  promotions  from 
her  Red  Sheets. 

6.  The  classroom  work.  The  direct  factor  in 
the  scholastic  progress  of  pupils  is,  of  course,  the 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS          267 

work  of  the  teacher  with  her  class.  The  following 
suggestions  may  serve  to  summarize  the  classroom 
problem  from  the  standpoint  of  the  responsibility 
of  the  principal. 

Training  the  new  teacher.  In  these  days  of 
professional  training  it  might  be  thought  that  a 
licensed  teacher,  once  secured  and  placed  in  charge 
of  a  class,  would  be  foreordained  to  certain  success. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  not  only  will  she  need  practical 
guidance  along  the  lines  discussed  in  the  foregoing 
chapters,  but,  constantly  during  the  early  years  of 
her  teaching  and  occasionally  throughout  her  entire 
career,  she  will  need  encouraging  reminders  as  to  the 
fundamental  principles  of  classroom  management. 

Presumably  the  incoming  teacher  has  been  trained 
in  pedagogy,  but  rarely  can  she,  unaided  and  unin- 
spired, immediately  carry  that  training  intelligently 
into  the  daily  detail  of  practical  work  with  a  class. 
Presumably,  too,  she  has  studied  the  history  of 
education,  familiarized  herself  with  the  significant 
world  movements,  and  learned  the  secrets  of  the 
great  masters  of  the  art  of  teaching;  vanquished 
all  the  perplexities  of  psychology  and  laid  bare  the 
secret  processes  of  the  human  mind;  educed  and 
induced  and  deduced  all   the  known  methods  of 


268     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

teaching.  But  fortunate  indeed  is  the  teacher  who, 
face  to  face  with  a  concrete  class  of  fifty  in  the  days 
of  her  novitiate,  can  constrict  world  movements 
within  the  limits  of  her  room,  recall  even  the  names 
of  the  master  pedagogues,  discover  any  psychologic 
principles  permeating  her  environment,  or  put 
method  into  the  prevailing  madness. 

In  time,  with  more  or  less  aid,  the  beginning 
teacher  will  reduce  chaos  to  order  and  arrive  at  the 
point  where  her  professional  progress  really  begins. 
The  principal  may  then  lead  the  teacher  to  review 
the  literature  she  studied  while  in  training,  but 
which  she  is  now  prepared  to  appreciate  with  a 
background  wholly  lacking  in  the  earlier  days. 
She  is  prepared  to  perceive  more  clearly  the  full 
significance  of  education  and  the  purpose  of  the 
public  school,  to  understand  aright  the  needs  of 
pupils  and  the  function  of  the  teacher,  and  to  apply 
native  ingenuity  to  daily  routine  with  increasing 
skill. 

The  principal  may  assign  one  of  his  experienced 
teachers  to  act  as  special  adviser  to  the  new  teacher. 
The  older  teacher,  having  an  inspiring  interest  in  the 
new  teacher,  will  benefit  by  the  contact  and  will  find 
a  professional  satisfaction  in  having  been  selected. 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         269 

The  new  teacher  will  be  more  ready  to  confess  her 
difficulties  to  her  mentor  than  to  the  principal. 

Classroom  standards.  It  is  a  chief  duty  of  the 
principal  to  lead  the  teacher,  in  the  performance 
of  her  detailed  work  in  the  classroom,  away  from 
obsolete  and  inadequate  standards.  She  must  not 
regard  education  as  merely  a  pouring-in  and  pump- 
ing-out  process,  or  the  recitation,  important  as  it  is, 
as  the  chief  aim  or  sole  activity  of  the  school. 
Particularly  must  she  appreciate  the  necessity  for 
eliminating  waste  in  her  administration  of  the  class- 
room.1 

1  See  Bagley,  Classroom  Management,  Part  I,  with  which  every 
teacher  should  be  familiar. 

"  Violations  of  the  laws  of  mental  development  and  crude  class 
administration  lead  to  losses  of  time  and  effort  which  would  not  be 
tolerated  in  a  properly  managed  business  —  losses  resulting  from : 
poor  grading;  poor  grouping;  awkward  distribution  of  material; 
teaching  form  divorced  from  thought;  teaching  unrelated  ideas; 
waiting  for  slow  pupils;  combating  wrong  habits  resulting  from 
poor  initial  teaching.  These  and  other  sources  of  subtle  waste 
exhaust  the  energy  of  the  average  teacher  and  leave  her  over- 
whelmed, discouraged,  while  twice  the  work  required  of  the  grade 
is  done  with  ease  and  pleasure  by  the  teacher  who  can  either  in- 
stinctively or  reflectively  apply  to  every  phase  of  her  problem 
the"  principle  of  economy."  Miss  Margaret  McCloskey,  General 
Supervisor,  Newark,  in  Fiftieth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of 
Education,  p.  204. 

"Before  beginning  class  exercises  teachers  must  get  all  necessary 


270     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Inattention.  A  fruitful  source  of  waste  is  "  in- 
attention." Inattention  when  it  concerns  only  a 
single  pupil  or  two,  during  a  development  lesson,  for 
instance,  cannot,  be  regarded  as  a  serious  matter ; 
but  when  it  shows  signs  of  becoming  general,  the 
teacher  should  rapidly  apply  the  following  criteria : 

1.  Note  the  ventilation :  if  improper,  regulate  it; 
if  apparently  satisfactory,  then, 

2.  Note  the  temperature:  if  abnormal, rectify 
it ;  if  normal,  then, 

3.  Note  whether  the  pupils  are  fatigued :  if  they 
have  been  working  too  intensively  or  too  continu- 
ously along  one  line  and  consequently  are  physically 
tired,  change  the  subject ;  if  not,  then, 

4.  Note  whether  the  pupils  are  wearied:    if  the 

teaching  method  has  been  dull  and  uninteresting 

and  the  pupils  consequently  are  mentally  bored, 

change  the  method,  or  give  up  the  lesson  until  a 

supplies,  as  pencils,  chalk  (also  maps,  etc.),  from  the  principal  and 
library,  and  by  so  doing  prevent  wasting  school  time  for  this  pur- 
pose."—  71. 

"No  work  whatever  pertaining  to  the  making  of  reports,  or  to 
the  compilation  of  any  school  records,  shall  be  done  during  teaching 
or  school  hours."  —  77. 

"Teachers  must  not  leave  their  rooms  to  converse  with  one 
another  during  teaching  hours,  except  by  permission  of  principals." 
—  San  Francisco,  81. 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS  271 

better  method  can  be  prepared,  and  in  the  mean- 
time change  to  an  occupation  that  will  command 
attention. 

Work.  The  prevailing  atmosphere  of  the  class- 
room should  be  that  of  work.  There  is  a  value  in 
play  and  it  has  its  place  in  the  school  program,  but 
we  know  that  it  cannot  take  the  place  of  work. 
"  Teachers  and  parents  who  do  not  teach  the 
children  under  their  control  to  work  diligently, 
even  to  the  point  of  normal  fatigue,  are  doing  them 
a  serious  injury.  .  .  .  Wise  guidance  is  necessary 
in  reaching  that  golden  mean  where  the  spirit  re- 
sponds with  readiness  to  the  demands  of  labor,  and 
with  equal  delight  to  the  opportunity  for  play."  * 
There  is  a  certain  amount  of  work  that  a  pupil  must 
do  in  order  to  increase  his  capacity  for  work  as  well 
as  to  develop  and  maintain  his  self-respect. 

Some  of  the  causes  for  pupils'  failure  to  gain  in 
capacity  for  work,  which  the  principal  must  strive  to 
remove,  are: 

1.  Teachers  talk  too  much ;  they  occupy  the  center  of 
the  stage  when  many  times  they  should  be  in  the  audi- 
ence or  at  most  in  the  prompter's  box. 

2.  Pupils  are  not  allowed  sufficient  time  for  thought 
and  expression,  but  are  ruthlessly  interrupted  by  the 

1  Dresslar,  School  Hygiene,  p.  18. 


272     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

teacher  and  other  pupils.     Cooperation  gives  way  to  com- 
petition. 

The  promiscuous  raising  of  hands  by  pupils  anxious 
to  help  the  one  reciting  is  a  prevalent  habit  which  is 
usually  unnecessary,  disconcerting,  discourteous,  and 
altogether  unjustifiable,  and  which,  once  in  vogue,  re- 
quires persistent  attention  before  it  is  effectively  re- 
pressed. There  are  times,  of  course,  during  a  recitation 
when  the  raising  of  hands  may  legitimately  and  profitably 
be  called  for  or  permitted,  but  there  must  be  intelligent 
control.  The  teacher  also  must  guard  against  interrupt- 
ing the  pupiPs  train  of  thought  by  nagging  reminders  and 
unnecessary  remarks. 

3.  The  study  period  is  neglected.  Pupils*  study, 
either  in  school  or  at  home,  may  be  for  two  purposes : 
(a)  preparatory,  to  gather  material  for  a  subsequent 
lesson ;  and  (b)  supplementary,  dealing  with  the  results 
of  a  previous  lesson.  In  either  case,  this  study  should 
be  independent  of  the  teacher  or  other  helper.  Yet  the 
pupil  can  reach  complete  independence  only  through  the 
directive  guidance  of  the  skillful  teacher  who  gradually 
and  adroitly  withdraws  her  support. 

4.  Lessons  are  unwisely  assigned.  If  too  much  or  too 
difficult,  a  premium  is  put  upon  the  pupil's  getting  help 
which  weakens  rather  than  strengthens  him ;  if  too  little 
or  too  easy,  the  pupil  is  left  untrained  in  self -effort.  The 
balance  is  struck  when  the  work  assigned  can  be  accom- 
plished by  the  pupil  in  the  time  at  his  disposal,  yet 
necessitates  his  making  deliberate  and  honest  effort. 


THE  PUPILS*  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         273 

5.  Motives  are  neglected.  Pupils  are  set  at  work 
which  they  regard  only  as  a  task  because  they  see  no 
immediate  pleasure  or  future  benefit  which  can  possibly 
accrue  from  its  performance. 

6.  Textbooks  are  misused.  Either  they  become  a 
form  of  fetish,  encouraging  pupils  in  their  natural  help- 
lessness, or  they  are  neglected  and  the  pupils  are  de- 
prived of  their  rational  aid. 

7.  Standards  and  tests.  The  Binet  and  other 
scales  make  it  possible  to  estimate  the  mental 
ability  of  the  individual.  It  is  equally  important 
that  the  school  should  have  some  means  by  which 
to  measure  its  accomplishment.  Every  teacher 
knows  that  it  is  not  sufficient  for  her  to  undertake 
the  teaching  required  of  her  by  the  official  curricu- 
lum. She  must  make  sure  that  she  is  meeting  some 
success  by  frequently  measuring  her  accomplish- 
ment as  it  is  reflected  in  the  accomplishment  of  her 
pupils  in  response  to  her  instruction.  At  a  glance 
it  might  seem  a  simple  matter  to  make  such  meas- 
urements, but  in  truth  it  is  complicated.1 

1  Mental  measurements  "are  subject  to  certain  special  difficul- 
ties, due  chiefly  to  (1)  the  absence  or  imperfection  of  units  in 
which  to  measure,  (2)  the  lack  of  constancy  in  the  facts  measured, 
and  (3)  the  extreme  complexity  of  the  measurements  to  be 
made."  —  Edward  L.  Thorndike,  An  Introduction  to  the  Theory 
of  Mental  and  Social  Measurements,  p.  4. 


• 


274  ?he  management  of  a  city  school 

If  the  business  of  the  teacher  were  to  teach  a  number  of 
girls,  let  us  say,  to  sew  on  buttons,  a  simple  and  complete 
measure  of  performance  for  each  girl  would  be  the  ratio 
of  buttons  to  minutes.  When  we  consider  the  teacher's 
index  of  efficiency,  however,  we  immediately  encounter 
complications.  If  the  business  of  the  teacher  were 
merely  "to  teach  the  girls  how,"  then  her  work  was  over 
when  every  girl  had  learned  how,  regardless  of  speed. 
But  how  shall  we  measure  the  teacher  ?  Should  she  have 
taught  twenty  girls  how  in  twenty  minutes?  If  it  took 
her  thirty  minutes  is  she  only  two  thirds  efficient? 
Suppose  she  teaches  the  next  group  of  twenty  girls  how 
in  ten  minutes.  Has  she  become  200  per  cent  efficient, 
or  does  it  mean  that  these  twenty  girls  are  three  times 
as  apt  as  the  others  ?  Or  is  there  a  combination  of  factors 
operating,  —  the  teacher's  ability  and  the  respective 
aptitudes  of  the  girls? 

Suppose  the  teacher's  business  is  not  only  to  teach  the 
girls  how,  but  also  to  follow  that  by  training  them  to 
speed.  If  an  untutored  girl's  natural  rate  of  speed  is 
twenty  buttons  per  hour  and  the  teacher  trains  her  to 
do  twenty-five,  the  girl  has  evidently  become  25  per  cent 
more  efficient.  If  another  teacher  had  trained  the  same 
girl  to  do  thirty  buttons  per  hour,  the  girl  would  have 
become  50  per  cent  more  efficient.  How  about  the  two 
teachers  ?  Would  the  second  be  rated  twice  as  efficient 
as  the  first  ? 

Suppose  one  teacher  trains  a  girl  with  a  rate  of  twenty 
to  do  twenty-five  and  another  teacher  trains  a  girl  with 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         275 

a  rate  of  thirty  to  do  forty ;  how  do  the  two  girls  compare 
in  accomplishment,  and  how  do  the  two  teachers  ? 

All  these  questions  are  simple  compared  with  those 
which  arise  when  we  attempt  to  measure  the  work  of 
pupils  and  teachers  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  school  life. 
Consider  the  memorizing  of  spelling :  pupils  are  of  differ- 
ing degrees  of  mental  intelligence;  some  of  practically 
equal  intelligence  have  a  differing  index  of  ability  in  learn- 
ing to  spell ;  each  word  presents  its  own  peculiar  difficul- 
ties of  recognition.  Moreover  the  class  may  be  tired  one 
day,  cross  another,  six  of  them  ill,  nine  of  them  worried, 
five  of  them  thinking  of  the  coming  evening's  party  — 
how  much  is  the  teacher  to  blame  ?  Suppose  thirty  spell 
all  the  words  correctly  to-day,  but  next  month  only 
twenty.  Suppose  in  another  class  only  fifteen  spell  the 
same  words  correctly  to-day  but  twenty-five  of  them  can 
do  it  next  month.  Which  class  measures  the  higher,  and 
is  it  the  class  or  the  teacher  ? 

These  considerations  only  hint  at  the  difficulties  en- 
countered when  we  try  to  devise  measuring  scales  for 
pupils'  endeavor  which  shall  be  in  any  way  accurate  and 
fair  to  pupils  and  teachers. 

Standardized  tests.  For  years,  through  rain  and 
snow  and  fair  weather,  teachers  have  tested  pupils 
and  principals  have  tested  pupils  and  teachers  by 
examinations  in  every  conceivable  subject  of  the 
curriculum.    To-day  there  is  a  distinct  movement 


276     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

to  check  up  this  practice  with  questionings  as  to 
the  scientific  validity  of  many  of  our  traditional 
tests.  The  effort  is  being  made  to  replace  sub- 
jective opinion  and  guess  as  to  what  ought  to  be 
with  objective  measures  of  accomplishment  based 
on  scientific  investigation.  It  is  probably  too  early 
to  attempt  any  definite  judgment  on  the  standards 
already  devised  or  upon  the  whole  movement  to 
establish  such  standards.1  Nevertheless  the  prin- 
cipal must  be  familiar  with  the  spirit  and  purpose 
of  the  movement  and  he  should  have  a  practical 
familiarity  with  the  leading  standardized  tests. 
By  their  use  in  his  school  he  may  at  least  approxi- 
mately measure  his  work  with  that  in  other  schools 
and  school  systems. 

1  Professor  Cubberley  says  that  the  movement  is  so  important 
"in  terms  of  the  future  of  administrative  service  that  it  bids  fair 
to  change,  in  the  course  of  time,  the  whole  character  of  school 
administration."  —  Public  School  Administration,  p.  325. 

P.  W.  Horn,  in  Supplementary  Portland  Survey,  April,  191 7, 
says:  "It  should  furthermore  be  kept  in  mind  that  there  are  many 
things  about  a  school  system  which  can  never  be  definitely  meas- 
ured or  stated  with  mathematical  accuracy.  Just  where  the  line 
is  to  be  drawn  between  the  measurable  and  the  non-measurable 
elements  that  enter  into  a  school  is  a  matter  concerning  which 
there  is  much  difference  of  opinion.  In  other  words,  the  element 
of  opinion  enters  to  some  extent  even  into  the  matter  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  measurement." 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS  277 

"The  great  problem  of  measurement  in  education, 
therefore,  is  to  construct  objective  or  universal  scales, 
about  the  use  of  which  there  can  be  no  misunderstanding 
when  they  are  placed  in  the  hands  of  competent  teachers. 
Every  such  scale  must  fulfill  at  least  three  essential  re- 
quirements: (1)  It  must  measure  a  desired  product; 
(2)  it  must  be  so  simple  in  its  application  that  it  is  suit- 
able for  ordinary  classroom  use ;  (3)  it  must  not  require 
an  undue  amount  of  time  in  administration."  * 

"Standardized  tests  are  not  ' playthings/  Neither 
are  they  teaching  devices.  They  are  instruments  whose 
function  is  to  reveal  the  conditions  which  exist  so  that 
the  teacher's  efforts  to  instruct  her  pupils  can  be  made 
more  effective. " 2 

1  J.  C.  Chapman  and  G.  P.  Rush,  The  Scientific  Measurement  of 
Classroom  Products,  p.  5.  Contains  summary  of  scales  in  various 
subjects. 

2  W.  S.  Monroe,  J.  C.  DeVoss,  and  F.  J.  Kelly,  Educational 
Tests  and  Measurements,  p.  288.  Contains  a  concise  account  of 
various  standardized  tests  and  scales,  including:  arithmetic 
—  Courtis,  Cleveland  Survey,  Woody,  Stone;  reading  (silent 
and  oral)  —  Thorndike,  Haggarty,  Starch ;  handwriting  —  Free- 
man ;  language  —  Hillegas,  Harvard-Newton,  Breed  and  Frostic, 
Willing ;  high-school  subjects. 

A  Brief  Tabular  History  of  the  Movement  toward  Standardization 
by  Means  of  Scales  and  Tests  of  Educational  Achievement  in  the 
Elementary  School  Subjects  appears  in  Educational  Administration 
and  Supervision,  vol.  2,  p.  483,  in  which  thirty-two  investigations 
are  tabulated  under  the  headings:  name  of  investigator;  subject 
investigated ;  date  of  study ;  general  method  employed ;  results. 


278     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Examinations.  Whatever  is  to  be  the  develop- 
ment of  standardized  tests  and  measurements,  it  is 
probable  that  for  a  long  time  to  come  principals  and 
teachers  will  make  profitable  use  of  the  examination 
of  the  usual  form,  whether  retaining  the  long  and 
severe  term  or  substituting  the  shorter  and  softer 
word  test.  In  the  discussion  following,  the  words 
test  and  examination  are  used  synonymously  to 
include  all  kinds,  oral  and  written,  of  formal  investi- 
gation into  the  ability  and  achievement  of  pupils. 

The  use  of  tests.  Certain  principles  must  be 
observed  in  using  tests,  or  examinations. 

1.  Tests  must  be  regarded  as  a  means  to  an  end, 
and  not  be  mistaken  for  the  end  itself.  Like  fire,  the 
examination  is  a  good  servant  but  a  bad  master. 

2.  Teachers  and  pupils  must  not  work  solely  or 
even  primarily  for  results  on  examinations,  both 
because  of  the  superficiality  of  the  work  thus  en- 
couraged and  because  of  the  fret  and  worry  that  are 
produced  in  the  minds  of  teacher  and  pupils. 

Daniel  Starch,  in  Educational  Measurements,  reproduces  several 
of  the  leading  scales. 

A  Bibliography  of  Educational  Surveys  and  Tests  appears  in 
Universityhf  Virginia  Record,  Extension  Series,  vol.  11,  no.  3. 

New  York  City  has  adopted  a  Writing  Scale  devised  by  C.  C. 
Lister  and  G.  C.  Myers. 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         279  fc* 

3.  Every  test  should  be  given  with  some  definite 
aim  or  purpose  in  view,  and  this  usually  should  be 
constructive  in  motive. 

4.  As  a  logical  consequence  of  its  purposeful 
character,  the  results  of  a  test  should  be  analyzed 
and  generalizations  carefully  drawn  which  may  be 
applied  in  subsequent  teaching. 

In  order  to  make  accurate  analyses,  the  principal 
should  understand  the  elements  of  statistical  method.1 
He  should  realize  that  in  order  to  secure  worth-while 
results  from  examinations,  "conditions  must  be  'con- 
trolled '  by  the  investigator,  measurements  must  be  made 
as  minutely  as  possible,  records  of  results  must  be  kept, 
and  the  data  which  have  been  collected  must  be  syste- 
matically organized  through  the  utilization  of  valid 
statistical  methods. " 2 

Principals,  and  teachers  also,  should  be  familiar  with 
the  more  common  statistical  terms.3 

"If  a  number  of  similar  objects  are  placed  side  by  side 
in  order  of  their  size,  they  are  said  to  be  arrayed.  .  .  . 

"If  any  group  of  objects  is  thus  arrayed,  the  middle 
one  is  known  as  the  median  item.  ...    If  there  is  an 

1  See  Monroe,  Educational  Tests  and  Measurements,  Chap. 
VIII,  "Statistical  Methods."  Also  King,  Thorndike,  Rugg, 
who  are  quoted  in  what  follows. 

2  Harold  O.  Rugg,  Statistical  Methods  Applied  to  Education,  p.  3. 

3  The  quotations  which  follow  are  from  Willford  I.  King,  The 
Elements  of  Statistical  Method. 


280     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

even  number  of  items  the  median  item  does  not  actually 
exist,  but  it  is  assumed  to  be  located  between  the  two 
middle  items."  —  p.  127. 

The  mode1  .  .  .  "is  invariably  denned  as  the  most 
frequent  size  of  item,  the  position  of  greatest  density.  ..." 
—  p.  12. 

The  arithmetic  average,2  in  distinction  from  the  geo- 
metric average  which  is  not  in  common  use,  "may  be 
definitely  located  by  a  simple  process  of  addition  and 
division,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to  draw  diagrams  or  ar- 
range the  data  in  any  set  forms  or  series."  —  p.  136. 

"The  sum  of  all  the  items  in  a  group  is  known  as  the 
aggregate.  The  arithmetic  average  may  be  denned  as 
the  sum  or  aggregate  of  a  series  of  items  divided  by  their 
number."  —  p.  132. 

ilA  weighted  average  is  one  whose  constituent  items  have 
been  multiplied  by  certain  weights  before  being  added, 
the  sum  thus  obtained  being  divided  by  the  sum  of  the 
weights  instead  of  by  the  number  of  items."  —  p.  136. 

1  "The  mode  is  the  type  that  to  the  ordinary  mind  seems  best 
to  represent  the  group.  It  is  more  intelligible  to  say  that  the 
modal  wage  of  workingmen  in  a  community  is  $2  per  day  than  to 
say  that  the  average  wage  is  $2.17  when  not  a  single  man  actually 
receives  the  latter  amount. "  —-  p.  126. 

2  "The  arithmetical  average  is  often  unwisely  used  as  the  sole 
measure  of  central  tendency."  —  Thorndike,  An  Introduction  to 
the  Theory  of  Mental  and  Social  Measurements,  p.  37. 

"The  median  is  more  easily  determined  than  the  average.  It 
is  not  so  precise  as  the  average,  is  very  little  influenced  by  extreme 
or  erroneous  measurements  and  is  unambiguous."  —  King,  p.  38. 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         281 

The  results  of  a  test  may  be  expressed  in  tabular  form 
or  in  graphic  representation.  As  a  concrete  example 
consider  a  test  in  spelling,  consisting  of  twenty  words, 
given  to  a  class  of  forty-three  pupils.  A  complete  report 
gives  the  names  of  all  pupils  and  opposite  each  his  score, 
the  number  of  words  he  spelled  correctly.  A  tabulation 
would  summarize  the  results  thus : 


Number 

Number 

Score 

of  Pupils 

Score 

or  Pupils 

20 

5 

12 

3 

19 

3 

II 

I 

18 

4 

IO 

2 

17 

2 

9 

I 

16 

7 

8 

I 

15 

6 

7 

I 

14 

3 

13 

4 

Total  pupils 

43 

A  glance  at  this  tabulation  shows  a  mode  at  score  16.  • 

The  median  score  is  the  2  2d  of  the  43  scores  when  they 
are  arranged  in  order  —  20,  20,  20,  20,  20,  19,  19,  19,  18, 
18,  18,  18,  etc.,  —  which  proves  to  be  15.  There  are  21 
scores  at  or  above  15  and  the  same  number,  21,  at  or 
below  15. 

The  arithmetic  average,  for  school  use  sufficiently  de- 
scribed as  the  average,  is  found  by  multiplying  each  score 
by  its  respective  number  of  pupils  and  dividing  the  sum 
of  the  products  by  43.    This  proves  to  be  14.9. 

In  this  case  the  average  and  the  median  are  nearly 
the  same.    There  are  many  combinations  which  would 


282     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 


prove  otherwise.  The  principal  should  discriminate  be- 
tween the  two  and  know  the  circumstances  under  which 
either  is  the  fairer  estimate  of  the  work  of  the  class  and 
teacher. 

Results  may  be  shown  graphically  by  the  use  of  qua- 
drille paper.1  In  the  foregoing  case,  the  distribution 
graph  would  be : 


9 

5 

m  --  J-  -- 


or,  perhaps,  better: 


1  An  extensive  use  may  be  made  of  graphs  of  various  forms  in 
many  of  the  activities  of  the  school.  See  Willard  C.  Brinton, 
Graphic  Methods  for  Presenting  Facts,  particularly  p.  82  for 
features  of  plotted  curves;  p.  360  for  checking  list  for  graphic 
presentations ;  and  p.  361  for  rules  for  graphic  presentation. 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         283 

A  progress  graph  is  also  of  interest.  Suppose  the  per- 
formance of  this  class  on  successive  tests  yielded  aver- 
ages of  14.9,  *$>1,  *5-3>  x5-6,  15-8,  iSSj  *S7>  *4-8, 15-6, 
16.4,  the  graph  would  read  : 


■ 

16 

15 

'br 

lip 

7    t 

»  /h 

~V' 

life 

th 

iti 

i& 

Ml 

)ct. 

•     <■ 

j    ^ 

»     c 

3 

3     | 

i     i 

J    1 

j      c 

J     I 

1 

s 

F  M 

se  1 

UM 

«? 

& 

sea 

8. 

— ■— 

or,  better,  asa"  curve  " 


/ 

/ 

/ 

J 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

I 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

> 

s 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

r 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

1 

\ 

/ 

)rt. 

2 

-« 

£ 

1 

1   1 

'.   1 

1  1 

7    1 

)    2 

1 

284     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

5.  There  should  be  a  judicious  distribution  of 
oral  and  written  tests.  The  written  is  so  commonly 
the  prevailing  form  that  it  is  unnecessary  here  to 
argue  for  it.  The  oral  test  has  certain  advantages 
over  the  written  test :  for  the  teacher,  it  develops 
her  skill  in  questioning,  helps  her  in  discovering 
pupils'  ability  in  use  of  oral  language,  and  relieves 
her  of  the  task  of  marking  papers ;  for  the  pupil, 
it  relieves  him  from  constant  use  of  the  pen,  and 
holds  him  at  a  keener  point  of  attention. 

6.  Tests  should  be  varied  in  their  character  as 
to  the  kind  of  ability  tested.  Particularly  should 
there  be  a  due  proportion  of  (a)  habit  tests, 
(6)  memory  tests,  (c)  judgment  tests. 

Three  kinds  of  tests.  Exception  might  possibly 
be  taken  to  this  classification  of  tests,  but  as  we 
are  considering  the  matter  from  the  administra- 
tion standpoint  and  aim  at  broad  and  practical 
distinction,  no  extended  defense  is  offered.  We 
distinguish  primarily  between  the  two  functions 
of  habit  and  judgment. 

(a)  The  habit  test.  Doing  and  Making  are  the 
two  forms  of  "  testable  "  habits.  Reading  —  that 
is,  learning  to  read,  not  reading  to  learn  —  is  a 
habit  yielding  of  itself  no  tangible  product.    It  is 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         285 

true  that  in  the  course  of  acquiring  it  the  pupil 
must  have  made  many  psychologic  judgments ;  but 
in  testing  a  pupil's  ability  to  read,  we  test  something 
which,  if  it  is  not  already  a  matter, of  habit,  must 
become  such  before  the  pupil  has  command  of  this 
chief  tool  of  his  mental  workshop.  If  he  has  to  per- 
form a  conscious  judging  anew  at  every  word  as  he 
sees  it  on  the  printed  page,  he  has  not  yet  learned 
to  read  in  any  practical  sense.  Gymnastics  and 
singing  are  other  forms  of  the  Doing  habit. 

The  testing  of  this  class  of  habits  presents  certain 
difficulties  arising  from  the  fact  that  there  is  no 
permanent  product.  Two  are  obvious  :  much  time 
is  consumed  in  formally  hearing  each  pupil  read  or 
sing  a  selection,  or  observing  him  go  through  a 
gymnastic  exercise;  and  there  is  apt  to  be  wide 
variation  in  the  criteria  employed  by  different 
teachers,  and  even  by  the  same  teacher  at  different 
times,  in  determining  the  "  rating  "  of  the  pupil's 
work.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  an  advantage 
in  the  teacher's  being  able  to  get,  as  it  were,  a  view 
of  the  class  as  a  whole,  against  which  the  short- 
comings of  the  individual  stand  out  in  relief. 

Writing  (and  written  spelling),  and  the  working 
elements  of  drawing,  sewing,  and  constructive  work, 


286     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

are  habits  of  the  Making  order,  yielding  a  tangible 
product  which  may  be  filed  for  future  reference. 
As  in  the  Doing  habits,  a  simple  form  of  judging  is 
involved  in  their  acquisition,  but  once  acquired  the 
resulting  products  come  largely  as  a  matter  of  habit 
—  "  largely,"  because  it  is  clear  that  in  the  ad- 
vanced work  of  drawing  and  construction  there  is 
much  "  judgment  "  to  be  tested.  But  no  pupil  has 
learned  to  write  or  to  draw  who  is  obliged  to  consider, 
in  a  judging  attitude,  each  letter  of  the  alphabet 
as  he  forms  it,  or  every  stroke  of  his  pencil  as  he 
makes  a  line. 

(b)  The  memory  test.  In  addition  to  effecting 
the  acquisition  of  habits,  the  educative  process 
involves  the  exercise  of  judging  and  the  storing  up 
of  judgments.  As  these  two  functions  are  distinct, 
the  one  dealing  with  process  and  the  other  with 
product,  we  test  both  memory,  which  concerns  the 
product,  and  judgment,  which  concerns  the  process. 

Judgments  are  the  results  of  the  process  of  judging; 
and  the  process  and  the  product  must  be  sharply  dis- 
tinguished. A  judgment  is  a  judgment,  whoever  may 
have  performed  the  judging  which  produced  it.  You 
may  judge  and  thus  arrive  at  a  judgment ;  I  may  accept 
the  judgment  without  any  judging,     For  instance,  I  may 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         287 

be  curious  as  to  the  name  of  the  tree  before  me.  I  might 
go  through  the  various  stages  of  judging,  consulting  bo- 
tanical classifications,  etc. ;  instead,  I  ask  you,  for  I 
know  you  have  made  many  judgments  of  this  sort.  You 
tell  me  that  it  is  an  aspen.  My  curiosity  is  satisfied.  I 
have  acquired  the  judgment:  This  tree  is  an  aspen. 
The  only  judging  I  have  done  has  been  incidental :  I  have 
correctly  judged  that  I  can  accept  your  statement  with 
confidence ;  I  may  have  erred  in  not  realizing  that  had  I 
done  the  judging  myself  I  should  probably  retain  the 
judgment  longer  than  I  shall  by  taking  it  ready-made  — 
nevertheless,  I  have  the  judgment,  and  I  got  it  without 
judging. 

It  is  necessary  to  note  a  further  distinction.  A 
judgment  may  be  either  a  fact  or  a  principle;  a  fact 
is  the  statement  of  a  relation  between  particular  units,  a 
principle  is  the  "  statement  of  a  relation  that  is  constant 
in  a  number  of  separate  facts";1  a  fact  is  special,  a 
principle  is  general. 

The  act  of  judging,  then,  may  be  either  the  determining 
of  a  statement  of  fact 2  or  the  working  over  of  facts  until 
a  common  relation  is  discovered  and  expressed  as  a  gen- 
eralization. For  instance,  to  revert  to  the  former  illus- 
tration, having  learned  that  this  tree  is  an  aspen,  I  am 

1  Bagley,  Educative  Process,  p.  166.  Also,  "the  terms  'gen- 
eralization,' 'law,'  and  'principle'  may  be  looked  upon  as 
synonymous." 

2  In  which  we  may  include  for  present  purposes  the  application 
of  generalizations  to  particulars,  i.e.  deduction. 


288     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

told  that  that  other  tree  is  an  aspen,  and  a  third,  and  a 
fourth,  and  so  on,  until  I  know  a  score  of  particular  aspen 
trees.  By  careful  observation  I  discover  that  all  these 
have  a  common  peculiarity  in  the  shape  of  leaf  and  stem. 
From  this  I  reach  the  generalization  :  Trees  having  round 
leaves  and  long  stems  flattened  in  planes  perpendicular 
to  each  other  are  aspens.  In  this  case  I  have  done  my 
own  judging ;  but  you  might,  as  before,  have  given  me 
this  judgment  as  the  result  of  your  own  judging.  I  then 
would  have  been  in  possession  of  the  same  judgment, 
but  would  not  have  had  the  exercise  in  judging.  Thus 
judging  may  be  concerned  with  either  generalized  or  par- 
ticularized judgments,  with  principles  or  with  facts. 

In  school  work,  the  amount  of  judging  which  the  pupil 
exercises  in  the  acquisition  of  judgments  depends  largely 
upon  the  "  method  "  of  his  teacher.  She,  with  her  techni- 
cal skill,  will  sometimes  place  before  him  ready-made 
judgments  and  force  him  to  acquire  them,  and  at  other 
times  compel  him  of  his  own  effort  to  reach  judgments 
for  himself.  In  either  case  he  learns  a  judgment:  to 
recall  the  judgment  at  some  future  time  is  presumably * 
an  act  of  memory;  to  arrive  at  a  judgment  de  novo  is 
an  act  of  judging.  The  ability  to  perform  each  of  these 
acts  can  be,  and  in  the  interest  of  good  results  should  be, 
tested  independently. 

1  "Presumably,"  because  in  a  memory  test  a  pupil  might  fail  to 
remember  a  judgment  and  yet  be  able  to  recall  it  by  repeating  the 
process  of  judging  by  which  originally  he  reached  the  judgment  in 
question. 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS  289 

Testing  Memory  is  to  test  the  extent  of  the  pupil's 
fund  of  judgments ;  testing  Judgment  is  to  test  his  abil- 
ity to  judge.  Memory  tests  concern  the  products  of  judg- 
ing ;   Judgment  tests  concern  the  processes  of  judging.  | 

Of  the  several  forms  of  activity  which  the  child 
is  in  school  to  exercise,  one  of  the  simplest  is  the 
memorizing  of  facts  and  generalizations.  This 
form  lends  itself  most  readily  to  a  test  of  results. 
Has  the  pupil  learned,  with  a  sufficient  degree  of 
surety,  the  facts,  isolated  or  related,  which  it  is  his 
business  to  have  acquired?  This  is  the  easiest 
question  to  answer  by  test,  and  it  is  well  to  settle  it 
before  testing  the  ability  to  judge,  which  in  many 
respects  is  of  higher  grade  than  the  ability  to 
memorize. 

It  is  sometimes  urged  in  criticism  that  a  test  of 
this  kind  is  necessarily  partial  because  the  exami- 
nation shows  only  whether  the  particular  questions 
have  been  correctly  answered.  It  does  not  indicate 
whether  other  questions  equally  important  could 
be  answered.  Yet  if  the  particular  questions  are 
carefully  selected,  the  law  of  averages  operates  so 
that  the  percentage  of  correct  answers  to  those 
questions  sufficiently  approximates  the  percentage 
of  correct  answers  which  would  result  were  the 


290     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

pupils  asked  all  the  possible  questions  on  the  subject 
under  review.1 

The  study  of  every  subject  in  the  curriculum 
involves,  at  some  stage  at  least,  the  memorizing  of 
certain  facts  or  generalizations.     It  is  quite  true 

1  By  way  of  experiment,  spelling  was  selected  as  the  subject 
which  best  lends  itself  to  mathematical  consideration,  and  a 
special  exercise  was  taken  in  classes  of  the  5  B-8  A  grades.  In  each 
case  the  teacher  compiled  a  list  of  one  hundred  words  of  ordinary 
difficulty,  the  spelling  of  which,  to  the  best  of  her  knowledge,  the 
pupils  had  not  theretofore  formally  studied.  She  assigned  ten  of 
these  hundred  to  the  class  for  study  on  each  of  ten  consecutive 
school  days.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  day,  ten  words  — 
one  from  each  block  of  ten  —  were  given  as  a  spelling  test ;  later 
in  the  morning  another  ten,  similarly  selected,  were  given ;  and  in 
the  afternoon  the  entire  hundred  words  were  given.  The  results 
in  average  per  cent  correct  were : 


First  Ten 

Second  Ten 

Average  of 

First  and 

Second  Ten 

Entire 
Hundred 

5B 

98.O 

98.0 

98.O 

96.I 

6A 

85.O 

85.0 

85.O 

92.O 

6B 

95-2 

97-5 

96.4 

95-o 

7A 

88.0 

94-7 

91.4 

92.0 

7B 

95.0 

95-0 

95-o 

96.0 

8A 

98.4 

97-5 

98.0 

97.6 

Allowing  for  the  impossibility  of  securing  exactly  the  same 
conditions  for  each  of  the  three  tests,  the  results  on  the  selected 
groups  and  on  the  entire  hundred  are  sufficiently  in  accord  to 
justify  the  practice  of  using  the  former  as  a  substitute  and  equiva- 
lent for  the  latter. 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         291 

that  in  certain  subjects,  notably  the  sciences,  most 
of  the  "  judgments  "  will  not  be  given  outright  to 
the  pupils,  but  will  be  developed  by  them  through 
the  guiding  genius  of  the  teacher.  But  the  fact 
that  some  judgments  are  the  product  of  the  pupiPs 
own  judging  does  not  justify  substituting  the 
judging  exercise  for  the  pupil's  mastery  of  the 
resulting  judgments.  The  most  skillful  teaching 
can  never  relieve  the  pupil  from  the  obligation  of 
acquiring  a  fund  of  judgments  to  be  drawn  upon 
in  the  constant  emergencies  of  life,  most  of  which 
allow  no  time  for  the  making  of  those  judgments 
afresh. 

(c)  The  judgment  test.  We  test  the  pupil  in  his 
ability  to  remember  or  to  recall  those  judgments 
which  have  been  previously  presented  or  worked  out. 
But  we  also  may  test  his  ability  to  exercise  the  judg- 
ing function,  which  we  do  by  requiring  him  to  make 
judgments  de  novo.  Every  subject,  under  good 
teaching,  requires  occasional,  if  not  frequent,  de- 
velopment of  judgments  by  the  pupils  themselves. 
The  necessity  for  testing  this  function  and  noting 
the  advance  of  pupils  therein  is  not,  as  a  rule,  ade- 
quately recognized.  It  is  not  to  be  accepted,  it  is 
true,  as  a  substitute  for  either  of  the  other  two 


202     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

forms  of  test,  but  should  be  used  particularly  in 
grades  above  the  third,  regularly  and  with  increasing 
frequency. 

The  mere  repetition  of  a  judging  exercise  by  the  pupil, 
through  memory  alone,  does  not  test  his  judgment. 
For  example,  he  may  have  taken  his  part  in  the  class  in 
the  development  of  the  solution  of  a  particular  problem 
in  mathematics.  Later,  in  a  test,  given  that  same 
problem,  he  may  respond  creditably  without  in  any 
measure  indicating  his  ability  to  develop  the  situation, 
but  merely  his  ability  to  remember  the  successive  steps 
in  the  solution. 

Ordinarily,  in  arithmetic,  the  development  of 
rules  and  the  solution  of  problems ;  in  grammar,  the 
development  of  rules  of  syntax  and  their  applica- 
tion to  new  sentences;  in  the  content  subjects, 
the  making  of  new  inferences;  are  all  judgment 
tests.  The  same  lesson,  or  topic,  or  series  of  lessons 
usually  permits  of  both  memory  and  judgment  test ; 
in  such  cases  the  result  of  each  kind  of  test  may  be 
quite  at  variance  both  for  individuals  and  for  the 
class  —  which  may  or  may  not  have  significance. 

Memory  and  judgment  test  questions.  The  fol- 
lowing suggestive  question  papers  are  submitted  to 
indicate  the  difference  between  a  memory  test  and 
a  judgment  test,  in  each  case  upon  the  same  lesson 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         293 

or  series  of  lessons.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add 
that  a  single  examination  may,  and  usually  should, 
include  both  kinds  of  questions. 

1.   "The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish."      Grade 

Seven  A1 

(a)  Memory 

(1)  Who  was  Miles  Standish? 

(2)  Why  had  the  Pilgrims  come  to  this  country? 

(3)  In  what  relation  did  John  Alden  stand  to  Miles 
Standish? 

(4)  Whom  did  Miles  Standish  love? 

(5)  Who  else  loved  her? 

(6)  What  errand  did  Miles  Standish  ask  John  Alden 
to  perform  for  him  ? 

(7)  Why  did  not  Miles  Standish  do  this  errand  him- 
self? 

(8)  Why  did  John  Alden  go? 

(9)  How  did  John  Alden  deliver  his  message? 
(10)  What  did  the  lady  say  ? 

(b)  Judgment 

(1)  In  what  way  were  St.  Gregory  and  his  monk,  St. 
Augustine,  like  Miles  Standish  and  John  Alden  ? 

(2)  How  could  Miles  Standish  be  a  "  shield "  and  a 
"weapon"? 

1  By  Miss  Gertrude  A.  Price,  Public  School  85,  Brooklyn,  New 
York. 


294  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

(3)  What  is  the  meaning  of : 

"Turned  o'er  the  well-worn  leaves,  where  thumb  marks 

thick  on  the  margin, 
Like  the  trample  of  feet,  proclaimed  the  battle  was 

hottest "? 
If  you  have  any  books  in  this  condition,  name  them  and 
the  parts  answering  to  the  above  description. 

(4)  How  could  Priscilla  throw  away  John's  heart? 

(5)  Why  should  Priscilla  mention  the  fact  that  reli- 
gion was  dear  to  her  ? 

(6)  Why  did  not  John  Alden  deliver  his  message  at 
first  in  the  beautiful  language  that  Miles  Standish  ex- 
pected he  would  ? 

(7)  Why  did  he  talk  so  eloquently  later  on? 

(8)  How  can  a  pen  give  away  a  secret  ? 

(9)  Why,  do  you  think,  did  John  Alden  not  suspect 
Miles  Standish's  love  for  Priscilla  before  he  was  asked  to 
go  on  the  errand  ? 

(10)  Why  did  Miles  Standish  talk  so  much  about  him- 
self as  a  soldier  before  asking  John  Alden  to  go  to  Pris- 
cilla?     * 

2.   United  States  History.     Grade  Eight1 
(a)  Memory 
Make    ten    historical    sentences    from    the    material 
presented  below.    The  subject  on  the  left  must  agree 
historically  with  the  predicate  on  the  right. 

1  By  Mr.  Walter  Gidinghagen,  principal,  Humboldt  School, 
Kansas  City,  Mo. 


THE  PUPILS  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS 


295 


3.  The  Monroe  Doctrine 

4.  The  "Spoils  System" 

5.  The  first  railroad 


1.  Missouri  appeared  in  1829. 

2.  Louisiana  proposed     the     Kansas- 

Nebraska  Bill. 

was  admitted  as  a  state  in 
1821. 

was       purchased       from 

France  for  $15,000,000. 
was  annexed  to  the  United 

States  in  1845. 
6.  William  Lloyd  Garrison    said,    "A   house   divided 

against  itself      cannot 

stand." 
originated    in    Jackson's 

time, 
was  proclaimed  in  1823. 
was  settled  in  1846. 
established   the  Liberator 

in  Boston. 


7.  Texas 

8.  The  Oregon  boundary 

9.  Stephen  A.  Douglas 
10.  Lincoln 


(b)  Judgment 

1 .  Why  was  the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal  of  great 
importance  ? 

2.  Give  two  arguments  against  slavery. 

3.  On  what  did  the  United  States  base  its  claim  to 
Oregon  ? 

4.  Was  the  United  States  justified  in  going  to  war  with 
Mexico  ?     Give  reasons. 

5.  Show  that  the  reaper  did  as  much  to  develop  the 
West  as  the  cotton  gin  did  to  develop  the  South. 


296     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

3.    United  States  History.     Grade  Eight1 
(a)  Memory 

1.  Give  date  of  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War.     State 
how  many  years  it  continued. 

2.  When  did  the  present  World  War  begin? 
When  did  the  United  States  enter  it? 

3.  Write  5  lines  of  Gettysburg  Address. 

4.  Name  an  important  battle  of  each  year  of  Civil  War. 

5.  What  did  the  Civil  War  cost  the  country? 
Compare  with  present  war. 

6.  Draw  a  map  to  illustrate  the  3  objective  points  of 
the  war. 

7.  When  and  where  was  the  first  shedding  of  blood  in 
the  Civil  War? 

8.  What  were  the  provisions  of  the  Emancipation 
Proclamation? 

9.  How  was  the  cost  of  the  Civil  War  met? 

How  are  we  meeting  the  cost  of  the  present  war? 

(b)  Judgment 

1.  How  and  why  did  the  North  have  the  advantage 
on  the  ocean  in  the  Civil  War  ? 

2 .  How  did  the  Appalachian  Mountains  affect  the  war  ? 

3.  In  what  ways  were  rivers  harmful  to  the  South? 

4.  How  did  a  blockade  affect  the  South? 

How  would  a  blockade  affect  us  in  the  present  war? 

1  By   Miss   Margaret    Strahan,   principal,  Lexington   School, 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 


THE  PUPILS'  SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         297 

5.  Why  did  Sherman  devastate  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  ?  Of  what  advantage  were  the  railroad  and  tele- 
graph to  Sherman  ? 

6.  In  what  ways  was  McClellan  a  great  leader  ? 
Why  was  he  then  not  successful? 

7.  What  was  Grant's  strongest  characteristic  as  a 
general  ?     Give  proofs. 

8.  Write  an  article  for  a  paper  that  an  anti-slavery 
man  of  the  North  might  have  written  after  the  Emanci- 
pation Proclamation,  also  one  that  a  slave  owner  might 
have  written. 

4.     Geography.     Grade  Eight  A1 

(a)  Memory 

(1)  Describe  Africa  as  to  its  location  in  zones,  the 
character  of  its  coast  line,  the  location  and  extent  of  its 
mountain  ranges,  and  the  chief  characteristics  of  its  river 
systems. 

(2)  Describe  the  feeding  of  the*  Nile,  the  character  of 
its  upper  and  lower  courses,  and  name  three  kinds  of 
ruins  peculiar  to  the  section. 

(3)  Name  the  four  largest  lakes  of  Africa.  Describe 
their  general  size,  source  of  water  supply,  and  use  to 
commerce. 

(4)  Name  two  animal  products  and  two  mineral  prod- 
ucts in  the  output  of  which  Africa  excels  the  world. 

1  By  Miss  Mabel  F.  Jones,  assistant  to  principal,  Public  School 
2,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


298     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

(5)  What  effect  have  the  trade  winds  on  northern 
Africa  ?  Account  for  the  Desert  of  Kalahari.  Why  does 
the  northern  slope  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  get  plentiful 
rainfall  ? 

(6)  What  is  the  common  peculiarity  of  the  ownership 
of  the  African  countries?  What  has  England  done  for 
Egypt? 

(7)  How  does  Africa  rank  among  the  continents  in 
development  of  resources,  commerce,  progress?  What 
section  has  least  chance  for  advancement?  In  what 
sections  is  there  most  progress  ? 

(8)  Locate  three  of  these  cities :  Johannesburg,  Cape 
Town,  Alexandria,  Cairo,  Khartoum.  Tell  for  what  each 
of  the  other  two  is  noted. 

(b)  Judgment 

(1)  Give  several  reasons  why  Africa  has  been  explored 
and  settled  so  much  later  than  either  North  or  South 
America. 

(2)  "The  Nile  River,  after  flowing  through  thousanc 
of  miles  of  desert  region,  makes  Upper  Egypt  one  of  th( 
most  fertile  sections  of  the  world."  Explain  how  this  is 
possible.  What  section  of  Africa  would  you  prefer 
visit,  and  why? 

(3)  Victoria  Nyanza  and  Lake  Superior  are  of  about 
the  same  size.  Give  some  reasons  why  one  is  of  greatei 
commercial  importance  than  the  other. 

(4)  How  do  you  think  the  price  of  diamonds  is  affecte 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         299 

by  South  Africa's  control  of  ninety  per  cent  of  the  world's 
output  of  diamonds  ?    Why  ? 

(5)  Why  is  not  a  large  part  of  northern  South  America 
a  desert  like  northern  Africa  ?  If  the  mountains  of  South 
Africa  lay  in  the  direction  of  the  Atlas  Mountains,  what 
difference,  if  any,  would  it  make  in  the  climate  of  South 
Africa?  Give  your  reasons  for  your  preference,  if  you 
were  to  choose  between  the  two  slopes  of  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains for  a  home. 

(6)  Give  two  possible  interpretations  of  Stanley's  title, 
"  In  Darkest  Africa."  Examine  a  map  of  Africa  for  the 
location  of  the  principal  railroads.  Account  for  their 
distribution. 

(7)  Explain  why  the  number  of  large  cities  in  Africa 
should  differ  from  that  of  Europe.  Give  three  reasons, 
from  its  location,  for  the  development  of  Alexandria  into 
a  city  of  importance. 

Use  of  tests  by  teachers.  The  principal  must 
supervise  the  use  of  tests  by  teachers,  who  must 
realize-  their  true  value  for  herself  and  for  her 
pupils. 

(a)  For  the  teacher. 

(1)  The  test  gives  the  teacher  an  important 
measure  of  the  response  of  individual  pupils  to  the 
requirements  of  the  school,  one  which  is  somewhat 
more  tangible  and  exact  than  the  pupils'  day-by-day 
activity. 


300     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

(2)  The  test  may  serve  as  a  factor  in  helping  the 
teacher  to  rate  pupils  accurately,  though  it  will  be 
but  one  of  several  factors.     (See  rating  of  pupils, 

P-  253-) 

(3)  Perhaps  the  chief  value  of  the  test  is  that  it 
shows  the  teacher  the  quality  of  her  own  teaching. 
It  may  indicate  her  own  successes  and  her  own 
failures.  The  wise  teacher  will  not  always  charge 
up  against  her  pupils  their  poor  showing  on  a  test, 
but  will  frequently  review  her  own  method,  ques- 
tioning whether  it  is  not  that  which  may  be  held 
responsible  for  the  delinquencies  of  the  pupils. 

(4)  By  a  careful  study  of  the  results  of  tests,  the 
teacher  is  guided  in  her  subsequent  teaching,  both 
as  regards  quality  and  as  to  details  in  respect  to 
quantity. 

(b)  For  the  pupil. 

(5)  Tests  have  a  disciplinary  value  in  showing 
pupils  exactly  what  they  know  and  what  they  do  not 
know,  and  in  forcing  upon  them  the  idea  that  they 
have  a  responsibility  for  results  and  are  to  be  held 
to  account. 

(6)  A  simple  test  may  be  used  occasionally  to 
encourage  pupils  who  are  disheartened  over  difficult 
work,  showing  them  that  they  have  already  ac- 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         301 

complished   something   and   may   be   expected   to 
accomplish  yet  more. 

(7)  Tests  help  to  fasten  important  topics  in 
mind.  The  emphasis  placed  upon  a  topic  when  it 
is  made  the  subject  of  a  test-question  usually  makes 
a  lasting  impression  upon  the  pupiPs  mind  whether 
he  answered  the  particular  question  successfully  or 
not. 

(8)  Tests  may  be  made  a  means  of  valuable  train- 
ing along  lines  outside  the  subject  matter  of  the  test. 

(a)  To  analyze  the  meaning  of  an  examination 
question  and  to  state  clearly  the  answer  thereto  is 
an  excellent  language  drill.  Indeed,  much  of  the 
difficulty  pupils  have  in  solving  problems  in  mathe- 
matics, for  instance,  arises  from  failure  to  under- 
stand the  question  —  lack  of  ability  to  interpret  the 
English  language. 

(b)  A  written  examination  demands  from  the 
pupil  careful  though  incidental  attention  to  matters 
of  penmanship,  arrangement,  form,  etc. 

(c)  A  written  examination  in  which  all  the  ques- 
tions are  placed  before  the  pupil  at  once  calls  for 
the  exercise  of  judgment  on  his  part  in  apportioning 
time  to  questions  and  determining  the  extent  to 
which  each  question  should  be  answered. 


302     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 


(d)  A  written  examination  in  which  the  questions 
are  placed  before  the  pupil  one  at  a  time,  and  he  is 
required  to  answer  one  question  before  going  on  to 
the  next,  calls  for  concentration  of  thought  and 
effort  under  conscious  limitation  of  time. 

(e)  Pupils,  by  reading  and  rating  their  own  or 
one  another's  answer  papers,  as  they  should  occa- 
sionally, get  valuable  training  in  judgment  and  in 
the  finer  qualities  of  courtesy  and  tact. 

Use  of  tests  by  principal.  In  making  use  of  the 
test  himself  l  the  principal  may  have  at  least  three 
different  purposes : 

(i)  To  test  the  teaching.  When  this  is  the  aim, 
he  must  be  sure  that  his  test  is  a  "  fair  "  one.  His 
right  to  give  an  examination  at  any  time  to  any 
class  on  any  subject  is  not  to  be  questioned,  but  if 
he  is  to  use  the  results  in  his  estimate  of  a  teacher's 
ability  he  must  limit  his  questions  to  those  which 
cover  the  ground  taught  by  the  teacher  in  the  given 
period. 

1  "In  the  making  and  using  of  educational  measurements  four 
steps  may  be  recognized.  First,  giving  the  tests ;  second,  tabulat- 
ing the  scores  and  calculating  the  central  tendencies,  variabilities, 
etc. ;  third,  interpreting  the  scores ;  fourth,  modifying  instruction 
to  meet  the  needs  revealed.  The  supervisor  can  render  valuable 
service  in  each  of  these  steps." 
Measurements,  p.  285. 


Monroe,  Educational  Tests  and 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         303 

For  instance,  the  principal  might  give  an  examination 
in  trigonometry  to  a  fifth-year  class.  He  might  have 
good  pedagogic  or  administrative  reasons  for  doing  this ; 
and  so  long  as  he  merely  gave  the  examination  and  of- 
fered no  criticism  of  the  teacher  because  her  pupils  did 
not  "pass"  it,  she  would  have  no  cause  for  complaint, 
although  no  doubt  she  would  appreciate  it  if  the  principal 
explained  what  his  purpose  was.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
principal,  on  account  of  the  results  of  such  an  examina- 
tion, charged  the  teacher  with  doing  poor  work,  she 
would  certainly  have  cause  to  protest.  When  the  prin- 
cipal is  examining  in  order  to  test  the  teacher  it  should  be 
understood  that  such  is  his  purpose;  and  his  teachers 
should  be  trained  to  point  out  to  him  any  unfairness  on 
this  basis,  of  the  questions  he  asks. 

(2)  To  "  take  stock"  This  at  times  is  as  impor- 
tant for  the  school  administrator  as  for  the  mer- 
chant. A  good  way  to  ascertain  the  relative  condi- 
tion of  the  classes  from  grade  to  grade  is  to  give 
simple  tests  in  the  various  subjects,  using  the  same 
questions  in  all  grades  throughout  three  or  four 
years  of  the  course.  The  tabulated  results  by 
grades  and  by  classes  then  show  with  fair  accuracy 
the  location  of  weak  spots,  and  consequently  the 
places  at  which  the  maximum  of  corrective  teaching 
and  managing  must  be  applied. 


304     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Results  of  tests  in  each  class  may  be  entered  on  blank 
forms,  such  as  the  following : 

Test  in. 

Date 19 Class- 

Number  of  Pupils  in  Attendance 


Question  Number 

Pupils  Correct 

%  of  Pupils  Correct 

I 
2 

3 

4 

etc. 

Total : 

Teacher 
The  results  for  groups  of  classes  can  then  be  tabulated 
thus: 


%  CORRECT 

Class 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Total 

8BB 
8BG 
8AB 
8AM 
etc. 

(3)  To  settle  appeals  at  promotion.  The  principal 
should  have  documentary  support  for  his  final  deci- 
sion as  to  the  promotion  or  non-promotion  of  a 
pupil,  even  though  the  examination  may  not  have 
been  the  controlling  or  even  the  chief  factor  in 
determining  his  decision. 


THE  PUPILS'   SCHOLASTIC  PROGRESS         305 

Additional  principles.  A  few  additional  prin- 
ciples applicable  to  examinations,  whatever  their 
purpose,  are  noted : 

1.  Questions  should  be  stated  as  clearly  and  as 
briefly  as  the  subject  permits. 

2.  The  form  of  questions  should  be  varied  from 
time  to  time.  Avoid  stereotyped  forms,  to  meet 
which  teachers  and  pupils  waste  time  and  effort. 

3.  An  examination  may  consist  of  optional  ques- 
tions, optional  either  by  choice  of  the  teacher  or  of 
the  pupils.  If  a  teacher  is  given  her  choice  of,  say, 
ten  questions  out  of  fourteen,  her  objections  that 
some  questions  are  out  of  grade  or  otherwise  un- 
suitable are  anticipated  and  forestalled. 

4.  A  question  paper  should  be  so  worded  as  to 
permit  of  easy  reading  of  the  answers  thereto.  A 
set  of  questions  may  be  so  loosely  arranged  and  so 
vaguely  expressed  as  to  necessitate  an  inordinate 
amount  of  labor  by  the  teacher  in  reading  the  answer 
papers ;  by  the  exercise  of  a  few  minutes'  care  the 
same  questions  can  be  organized  into  such  form  as 
will  save  the  teacher  a  large  percentage  of  her  time 
and  energy. 

5.  Examinations  should  frequently  if  not  usually 
come  unheralded. 


306     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

6.  Extreme  care  should  be  exercised  in  drawing 
conclusions  from  the  results  of  any  given  examina- 
tion or  set  of  tests.  Hasty  generalization  may  work 
injustice  to  some  teacher  or  class  of  pupils;  all 
factors  that  enter  into  the  results  in  any  case  should 
be  diligently  sought  after  and  accurately  taken 
into  account.  For  example,  one  class  may  have  a 
disproportionate  number  of  pupils  handicapped  by 
illness,  over-age,  home  conditions,  recent  transfer 
from  another  school,  prolonged  absence,  physical 
or  mental  defect,  or  ignorance  of  English. 

Summary.  The  principal  is  responsible  for  the 
scholastic  progress  of  his  pupils.  He  must  so  grade 
them  as  to  insure  each  pupil's  receiving  a  maximum 
of  possible  service  from  the  school.  He  must  de- 
termine the  forms  of  organization  best  adapted  to 
local  conditions,  selecting  appropriate  methods  of 
grouping  pupils  and  deciding  the  degree  to  which 
departmental  organization  should  be  employed.  He 
must  secure  equitable  rating  of  pupils  by  teachers 
and  must  systematize  promotions  so  that  the  truest 
interests  of  pupils  are  conserved.  He  must  direct 
and  inspire  classroom  teaching  so  that  it  may  attain 
a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  He  must  use  measure- 
ments of  accomplishment  judiciously  and  super- 
vise their  use  by  teachers. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   PRINCIPAL   AND   THE   PUPILS'    MORAL 
DEVELOPMENT 

"  Discipline  "  a  problem.  The  problem  of  "  dis- 
cipline/ '  !  the  term  used  to  encompass  the  whole 
range  of  the  pupils'  moral  development,  scholasti- 
cally  considered,  is  probably  the  most  perplexing 
that  confronts  the  principal.  In  his  successful 
experience  as  a  class  teacher,  which  it  is  here  as- 
sumed the  principal  has  had,  he  has  learned  that 
"  discipline  "  cannot  be  detached  from  the  general 
current  of  activity  and  made  a  particular  feature, 
and  he  has  learned  and  applied  the  other  important 
principles  underlying  the  proper  government  of  a 
class.  But  as  principal  he  is  in  command  in  a 
broader  field,  and  he  finds  among  his  lieutenants 
a  large  proportion  who  are  untrained  in  practical 
class  management.  The  principal  must  secure,  in 
each  class,  a  rational  system  of  class  government 
and,  throughout  the  school  as  a  whole,  a  unified 

1  For  a  more  extended  discussion  see  author's  Discipline  as  a 
School  Problem. 

307 


308  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

system  of  school  government.  This  government  he 
must  develop  and  maintain  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
several  of  his  teachers  are  in  that  stage  of  their 
experience  when  their  presence  retards  rather  than 
strengthens  the  fulfillment  of  his  plans. 

An  ever-present  problem.  Discipline,  moreover, 
is  a  natural,  to-be-expected,  and  ever-present  school 
problem.  The  discipline  of  a  school  should,  under 
ordinary  conditions,  improve  from  year  to  year; 
but  as  the  work  of  the  school  means  a  continuous 
process  of  admitting  to  the  school  register  hundreds 
of  pupils  in  their  infancy  and  discharging  them  in 
their  youth,  just  so  will  the  problem  of  discipline  be 
a  continuous  one.  The  corollary  to  this  proposi- 
tion is :  Be  not  discouraged.  The  principal,  after 
five  years  in  a  school,  rinding  that  he  is  expending 
time  and  energy  on  the  same  old  disciplinary  prob- 
lems, is  prone  to  feel  disheartened;  but  he  must 
not  forget  that  while  the  problems  are  much  the 
same,  the  personnel  of  the  subjects  is  different  — 
he  is  treating  a  new  generation  of  pupils.  His 
methods  of  treatment,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  are  con- 
stantly improving;  but  he  is  dealing  all  the  while 
with  the  same  human  factors,  the  same  child  nature. 

In  meeting  this  problem,  as  all  others,  in  fact, 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         309 

the  principal  must  both  have  in  mind  a  body  of 
general  principles  and  express  those  principles  in 
specific  methods.  In  a  practical  discussion  of 
school  discipline  it  is  difficult  to  set  principles  off 
to  one  side  and  applications  to  the  other.  The  dis- 
tinction serves,  however,  and  we  shall  discuss  the 
whole  topic  under  (A)  general  principles  and  (B) 
specific  methods. 

A.  General  principles.  Before  the  principal  can 
successfully  administer  his  school  as  to  its  disci- 
plinary details  he  must  establish  certain  principles 
in  his  own  mind  and  in  the  minds  of  his  teachers. 
His  relation  to  his  school,  in  every  phase,  is  both 
pedagogic  and  legal.  He  will  carry  this  distinction 
throughout  his  handling  of  the  discipline  problem. 
He  must  follow  a  rational  pedagogy  as  to  moral 
development  and  he  must  exercise  the  authority 
vested  in  him  by  law. 

A  philosophy  of  moral  development.  The  prin- 
cipal must  have  some  philosophy  of  moral  develop- 
ment. It  may  be  a  borrowed  philosophy  or  it  may 
be  the  outgrowth  of  his  own  thinking  based  on  his 
reading  and  experience.  Whatever  its  source  he 
must  have  some  well-grounded  collection  of  funda- 
mental principles  to  guide  him  in  his  treatment  of 


310  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

the  general  problem  and  to  serve  as  the  background 
against  which  he  will  set  each  individual  "  case  " 
of  discipline  as  it  comes  before  him. 

The  following  philosophy  of  discipline  is  briefly  set 
forth,  merely  by  way  of  suggestion,  and  without  claim 
that  it  is  novel,  complete,  or  final. 

"Discipline"  of  a  class  or  other  group  of  pupils  is  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  "disciplines"  of  the  individual  pupils.1 
If  every  pupil  were  properly  and  completely  disciplined, 
the  school  would  be  in  perfect  discipline.  For  the  indi- 
vidual, discipline  is  not  merely  a  school  problem ;  it  is  a 
life  problem.  Indeed,  the  content  of  the  word  might  be 
extended  to  indicate  the  end  and  aim  of  all  education. 

All  sciences  are  interdependent.  Pedagogy  as  a 
science  is  chiefly  dependent  upon  the  sciences  of  sociology, 
biology,  and  psychology ;  others,  of  course,  make  material 
contributions.  The  most  significant  generalization  com- 
mon to  these  three  sciences  is  the  doctrine  of  evolution : 

i.  In  sociology.  Civilization  (the  present  state  of 
discipline  of  society)  came  late  in  the  historic  view  of  the 
human  race.  Even  within  the  period  of  civilization,  we 
see  that  Despotism  gives  place  slowly  to  Democracy; 
government  from  without  gives  place  slowly  to  gov- 
ernment from  within.  The  school  —  the  class  —  is  a 
society ;  and  the  growth  in  the  character  of  the  discipline 
of  a  school  group  is  a  matter  of  time.    The  class,  as  One 

1  Except  as  the  class  introduces  certain  new  factors  in  mass 
psychology  and  mass  control. 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         311 

A,  corresponds  to  the  infancy  of  the  civilized  race,  and  is 
governed  largely  by  absolutism ;  the  same  class,  become 
Eight  B,  corresponds  to  the  maturity  of  the  race,  and 
should  be  governed  as  a  democracy.  There  is  danger 
in  giving  a  society  in  its  infancy  self-government  for 
which  it  has  not  developed  capacity ;  there  is  equal  dan- 
ger in  restraining  a  society  by  absolutism  when  it  has 
reached  a  maturity  that  qualifies  it  for  democracy. 
Likewise  it  is  dangerous  to  force  self-government  upon 
a  One  A  class  and  equally  dangerous  to  withhold  it  from 
an  Eight  B  class. 

2.  In  biology.  Again,  in  the  development  of  the  in- 
dividual the  law  of  evolution  applies.  In  the  physical 
life  of  the  individual,  at  least  during  his  school  career,  the 
most  important  stage  is  adolescence.  In  the  elementary 
schools  we  deal  with  pupils  on  both  sides  of  the  crisis  of 
adolescence,  and  throughout  a  considerable  part  of  the 
period.  In  school  administration  we  must  give  due  con- 
sideration to  this  fact. 

3.  In  psychology.  Again,  evolution.  Here  we  see 
adolescence  as  a  mental  phase,  characterized  by  the 
efflorescence  of  activities  previously  dormant,  as,  for 
example,  the  religious  sentiment.  By  a  very  rough 
classification  it  may  be  said  that  we  deal  with  pupils  in 
school  grades  1-3,  in  their  infancy ;  in  4-6,  in  preadoles- 
cence ;  in  7-8,  in  adolescence.  Of  the  three  stages  the 
second  is  the  most  difficult  to  treat.  The  infant  is  an 
infant  and  is  to  be  treated  as  such ;  as  a  youth  he  is  to  be 
treated  as  a  youth ;  but  at  the  critical  stage  of  preadoles- 


312  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

cence,  he  himself  knows  not  whether  he  is  child  or 
youth,  feels,  but  cannot  analyze,  the  inward  strife  be- 
tween the  two  conditions,  and  taxes  the  skill  of  the  most 
experienced  of  teachers. 

Whatever  the  other  sciences  involved,  discipline  is 
essentially  a  concern  of  psychology.  Let  us  look  into  it 
from  this  viewpoint. 

Reduced  to  its  lowest  terms,  discipline,  in  its  popular 
school  sense,  means  that  process  which  leads  the  individ- 
ual to  do  the  right  thing.  Psychologically,  discipline  is 
a  threefold  matter  of  intellect,  of  feeling,  and  of  will. 
(I  am  not  unmindful  that  psychology  has  long  since 
dropped  the  use  of  these  terms  to  indicate  distinct  facul- 
ties of  the  mind ;  but  the  words  may  be  retained  as  a  con- 
venient terminology  to  apply  to  the  most  notable  phases 
of  consciousness . )  Formal  education  has  quite  uniformly 
overtrained,  and  is  yet  overtraining,  intellect.  But  we 
should  train  the  whole  mind,  not  merely  one  of  its  phases, 
intellect. 

We  do  right  only  when  three  conditions  are  satisfied : 
(i)  we  know  what  the  particular  right  is;  (2)  we  feel 
that  we  ought  to  do  the  right  in  any  case ;  and  (3)  we  will 
to  do  the  particular  right.  No  two  of  these  phases  will 
suffice :  (1)  one  may  have  a  fanatic  fervor  for  right 
doing  and  an  iron  will,  but  if  he  cannot  decide  the  purely 
intellectual  question  as  to  what  the  right  is  in  the  particu- 
lar case,  he  will  fail  to  do  the  right  in  that  case ;  (2)  one 
may  know  clearly  what  the  right  in  a  particular  matter  is, 
have  the  will  to  do  anything  he  sets  out  to  do  and  yet 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT  313 

lack  the  feeling ,  the  compelling  motive,  as,  for  instance, 
the  sense  of  duty,  and  thus  fail  to  do  the  right  in  the  par- 
ticular case ;  or  (3)  one  may  both  know  clearly  and  feel 
fervently  as  to  a  particular  right  conduct,  and  yet  lack 
the  necessary  will-power  and  again  fail  to  do  the  partic- 
ular right. 

How  shall  we  train  intellect,  feeling,  will?  We  have 
pretty  thoroughly  learned  the  method  of  intellect  train- 
ing. "Exercise  strengthens  faculty"  is  still  the  old 
reliable  rule.  It  is  the  law  of  training  of  all  kinds.  We 
have  long  recognized  the  necessity  of  drill  of  intellect; 
we  train  memory  by  memorizing ;  we  train  judgment  by 
judging ;  we  train  reason  by  reasoning,  etc.1  The  same 
principle  must  be  applied  to  feeling  and  will.  Modern 
pedagogy,  it  is  true,  has  developed  many  corollaries  to 
this  fundamental  law  of  drill,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  there  is 
any  successful  "method"  which  does  not  stand  upon  this 
foundation  principle.  How  then  shall  we  train  for  dis- 
cipline ? 

1.  Train  intellect.  The  child  must  know  what  is  the 
right  thing.  Be  sure  that  he  does  know  before  you  ex- 
pect him  to  act.  Many  "cases"  of  discipline  originate 
in  innocent  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  as  to  what 
is  the  right  in  a  particular  situation.  The  teacher,  as 
the  instructor  of  her  pupils  in  what  constitutes  the  right, 

1  These  statements  may  be  taken  in  a  large  or  in  a  limited 
sense,  according  to  whether  one  believes  or  disbelieves  in  the 
possibility  of  "generalized"  habits.  In  either  case  the  funda- 
mental principle  holds. 


314     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

has  a  heavy  responsibility.  She  must  distinguish  be- 
tween " conventions  "  and  " laws  of  right."  She  must  be 
sure,  especially  in  the  higher  grades,  that  she  is  not  over- 
emphasizing mere  school  conventions  and  leading  pupils 
to  a  belief  that  they  are  more  important  than  the  vital 
forms  of  righteousness.  She  must  have  a  correct,  or  at 
least  a  sane,  definition  of  "order,"  remembering  that 
order,  after  all,  is  but  a  means,  not  an  end,  though  some- 
where along  the  line  it  may  rightly  enough  be  made  an 
end  as  a  necessity  in  training.  "  Whispering,"  for 
example,  as  Dean  Balliet  aptly  puts  it,  "is  not  a  disease, 
but  a  symptom." 

But  the  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong  is  a  growth.  In 
infancy  the  child  knows  what  is  right  only  so  far  as  he  is 
told  that  it  is  right.  He  may  often  appear  to  know  the 
right  when  the  truth  is  that  he  merely  has  had  no 
experience  with  the  wrong.  The  teacher  will  not  de- 
mand from  pupils  compliance  with,  false  conventions,  yet 
in  dealing  with  pupils  in  the  infancy  stage  she  will  not 
attempt  to  have  them  distinguish  between  conventions 
and  moral  laws.  The  child  must  be  taught  with  equal 
insistence  that  he  must  not  steal  and  that  he  must  not 
put  his  knife  into  his  mouth  at  meals ;  for,  while  one  is  a 
matter  of  morals  and  the  other  is  a  matter  of  manners, 
it  would  be  a  violation  of  good  pedagogy  to  emphasize 
this  distinction  with  him,  or  to  get  into  any  discussion 
concerning  the  "rightness"  of  the  acts.  Broadly  con- 
sidered, to  steal,  to  lie,  to  kill,  may  be  justifiable,  that  is, 
under  certain  circumstances,  right ;    at  any  rate,  adults 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         315 

may  with  comparative  safety  discuss  the  question  as  to 
whether  or  not  they  are  ever  right.  The  child  must  be 
taught  emphatically,  unequivocally,  that  these  things 
are  wrong  —  they  are  wrong  because  you  tell  him  so. 
In  due  time  he  will  reach  adolescence  and  maturity,  gain 
his  intellectual  freedom,  and  take  his  turn  at  arguing 
metaphysical  questions.1 

Through  all  the  subjects  of  the  curriculum  the  pupil 
may  be  led  to  see  what  is  and  has  been  for  ages  considered 
right  in  the  various  and  detailed  relationships  of  life.  In 
The  Moral  Instruction  of  Children,  Dr.  Adler  shows  2 
how  the  teaching  of  science,  history,  literature,  etc.,  can 
develop  the  knowledge  of  right.  As  the  pupil  matures 
he  may  be  taught  to  reason  concerning  the  wisdom  of 
these  rights.  Probably  no  better  rule  can  be  given  him 
than  the  time-hallowed  golden  rule  of  considering  the 
"other  fellow." 

2.  Train  feeling.  The  ultimate  aim  is  the  attainment 
of  the  sentiment  of  Duty,  the  sense  of  Right  for  Right's 
sake ;  but  this  condition  is  the  climax  reached  only  after 
years  of  development.  This  sense  of  duty  is  derived 
slowly  through  the  years  from  infancy  to  adolescence, 
from  the  lowest  motives  through  an  ascending  series 
of   feelings.      Fear,  respect,  love,  ambition,   are  some 

1  "The  first  thing  the  child  has  to  learn  about  this  matter  is, 
that  lying  is  unprofitable,  —  afterwards  that  it  is  against  the  peace 
and  dignity  of  the  universe."  —  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  The 
Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,  p.  117. 

2  P.  27,  et  seq. 


316  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

of  the  milestones  on  the  road  to  the  terminal  Sense 
of  Duty. 

The  fundamental  proposition  is  that  the  child  must 
do  right.  It  is  only  by  doing  right  that  he  learns  to  do 
right.  If  the  child  of  four  were  able  to  do  right  through 
a  dependable  and  sustained  sense  of  duty,  then  the  appeal 
should  be  made  to  that  motive.  Actually  he  has  no 
such  lofty  sentiment,  consequently  he  must  be  brought 
to  do  the  right  because  of  some  feeling  lower  in  the  scale 
—  he  must  do  right.  If  fear  is  the  only  motive  that 
reaches  him  then  fear  must  operate ;  soon,  through  con- 
stant practice  in  doing  right,  fear  will  yield  to  something 
higher,  love  perhaps,  or  ambition,  and  thus  in  time  there 
will  be  a  growth  to  the  climax. 

There  are  many  opportunities  in  the  classroom  for 
training  feeling.  As  in  the  case  of  intellect,  it  may  be 
trained  without  passing  from  the  feeling  phase  to  the 
willing;  that  is,  without  the  particular  act  of  doing 
always  following  the  exercise  in  knowing  and  feeling. 
In  training  the  child  the  teacher  must  constantly  and 
consistently  emphasize  the  crime,  and  not  the  criminal. 
It  is  not  that  the  murderer  is  a  bad  man,  but  that  he  com- 
mitted a  bad  deed.  It  is  not  that  John  is  a  bad  boy,  but 
that  he  did  a  wrong  thing.  We  hate  the  wrong,  but  we 
love  the  child.  Many  a  teacher  forgets  this  principle 
and  treats  the  misdeeds  of  pupils  as  affronts  directed 
against  her  personally.  The  pupiPs  offenses  are  to  be 
regarded,  not  as  offenses  against  the  teacher,  but  as 
offenses  against  himself  or  against  law  and  society.    The 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         317 

pupil,  it  is  true,  may  have  the  personal  feeling  of  antag- 
onism against  the  teacher,  but  by  the  time  adolescence 
approaches,  he  should  have  outgrown  the  habit  as  the 
result  of  consistent  training  in  which  his  teachers  have 
refused  to  accept  his  misdemeanors  in  this  spirit  and 
have  uniformly  treated  his  offenses  impersonally. 
Moreover,  when  the  teacher  takes  the  personal  attitude 
of  having  been  affronted  by  the  pupil's  misdemeanor, 
it  enhances  the  notoriety  which  the  pupil  has  thus  cheaply 
acquired  and  which  he,  and  some  of  his  classmates,  mis- 
take for  fame. 

3.  Train  will.  This  "I  will  do  right"  is  also  a  matter 
of  growth  and  can  be  developed  through  drill.  There 
are  many  more  classroom  opportunities  to  train  will 
than  the  average  teacher  appreciates.  Before  the  pupil 
can  be  expected  to  exercise  even  a  little  self-control  in 
big  things,  he  must  first  be  taught  to  exercise  large 
control  in  little  things.  His  will  must  first  be  taught 
to  function  in  the  less  important  matters.  Most 
teachers  delay  disciplining  the  pupil's  will  until  some 
crisis  is  reached  which  they  cannot  afford  to  disregard. 
If  the  pupil  were  trained  to  meet  minor  matters  of  grad- 
ually increasing  strain  upon  his  will  power,  he  would  reach 
the  major  stresses  with  a  will  prepared  to  meet  them. 

To  summarize:  Discipline  is  a  matter  of  growth;  we 
must  not  expect  too  much  too  soon ;  we  must  sympathize 
with  failure,  for  failure  has  been  a  not  uncommon  ex- 
perience with  us ;  we  must  respect  physical  and  psycho- 
logical changes  from  infancy  to  adolescence ;    we  must 


318     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

train  for  discipline  —  train  intellect  so  that  it  shall  know 
the  right,  train  feeling  so  that  it  shall  come  instinctively 
to  prefer  right  to  wrong,  and  train  will  so  that  it  shall, 
by  force  of  habit,  act  promptly  in  accordance  with  the 
dictates  of  trained  intellect  and  feeling. 

Whatever  the  detail  of  his  philosophy,  the  principal  will 
undoubtedly  accede  to  the  proposition  that  discipline 
should  be  a  matter  of  growth  from  implicit  to  rational 
obedience. 

Principal's  legal  authority.  Every  pupil  in  the 
school  must  feel  the  ultimate  authority  of  the  prin- 
cipal as  the  administrator  of  the  law.  This  does 
not  mean  that  the  principal  flaunts  his  authority 
or  even  refers  to  it.  But  the  principal's  personality 
is  one  of  the  most  potent  factors  of  moral  influence 
in  the  school,  hence  his  influence  for  right  and 
against  wrong  must  be  quiet,  unobtrusive,  but  sure. 
Teachers  will  maintain  such  a  standard  of  dis- 
cipline as  they  are  sustained  in  enforcing,  or  which 
they  are  required  to  enforce.  Teachers  and  pupils 
must  both,  therefore,  feel  that  the  principal  stands 
ready  fearlessly,  whenever  occasion  arises,  to  exer- 
cise his  legal  authority  to  the  limit,  whether  that 
limit  be  corporal  punishment,  suspension,  or 
expulsion. 

The  sensing  by  the  pupils  that  legal  authority  is 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         319 

vested  in  the  school  must  be  extended  from  the 
principal  to  every  teacher  in  the  building.  Pupils 
must  feel  that  they  are  at  all  times  responsible  to 
any  and  every  teacher  in  the  school.1  A  pupil  of  a 
higher  grade,  for  example,  who  shows  any  dis- 
respect to  a  teacher  of  some  other,  and  probably  of 
a  lower,  grade,  should,  as  a  matter  of  logical  con- 
sequence, be  temporarily  transferred  to  the  room 
of  that  teacher  until  she  is  convinced  that  he  is 
ready  to  act  with  proper  respect  and  obedience. 

The  constant  deference  on  the  part  of  the  prin- 
cipal to  the  administrative  headship  of  the  teacher, 
previously  referred  to  (p.  102),  is  of  immense  value 
in  impressing  upon  pupils  the  fact  that  the  teacher, 
as  well  as  the  principal,  is  the  embodiment  of  legal 
authority. 

B.  Specific  methods.  With  general  principles  to 
guide  him,  the  principal  will  attend  to  the  more 
specific  methods  of  discipline  involved  in  school 
management.     There   are   two   chief  personal  dis- 

1  "Teachers  shall  hold  pupils  to  a  strict  accountability  for  any- 
disorderly  conduct  on  their  way  to  or  from  school,  or  on  the  school 
premises."  —  San  Francisco,  112. 

"Every  teacher  is  hereby  especially  empowered  and  enjoined 
to  command  order  on  or  about  the  school  premises,  on  the  part  of 
every  pupil  connected  with  the  public  schools.'*  —  58. 


320     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

ciplinary  forces  in  the  school,  (i)  the  teachers  and 
(2)  the  principal. 

1.  Teachers  as  disciplinarians.  As  the  principal 
must  work  through  the  agency  of  his  teachers,  he 
must  train  them  to  become  good  disciplinarians,  in 
the  proper  sense  of  the  term.  The  new  teacher, 
generally,  needs  more  encouragement  and  attention 
and  more  detailed  instructions  than  does  the_  expe- 
rienced teacher,  and  in  no  respect  more  than  in  the 
matter  of  discipline.  The  teacher  must  (a)  be  led 
to  see  how  important  a  factor  is  her  own  personality ; 
then  she  must  (b)  be  given  certain  specific  cautions 
embodying  the  usual  maxims ;  and  she  must  (c)  be 
given  specific  aids  in  discipline. 

a.  The  teacher's  personality.  The  teacher  must 
remember  that  "  the  very  atmosphere  of  the  class- 
room should  be  such  as  to  encourage  moral  refine- 
ment; it  should  possess  a  sunny  climate,  so  to 
speak,  in  which  meanness  and  vulgarity  cannot 
live."  1  This  atmosphere  is  primarily  a  matter  of 
the  teacher  herself,  for  the  class  reflects  the  teacher.2 

1  Felix  Adler,  The  Moral  Instruction  of  Children. 

2  "The  first  duty  of  the  teacher  is  to  expand  and  enlarge  his 
own  limited  personality  so  as  to  take  in  and  appreciate  the  rich 
variety  of  character  with  which  the  boys  and  girls  surround  him." 
—  Charles  A.  McMurry,  Conflicting  Principles  in  Teaching,  p.  34. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         321 

Hence  she  must  cultivate  those  personal  qualities 
that  are  necessary  in  order  to  insure  decorum 
and  right  behavior  on  the  part  of  her  pupils.  The 
most  valuable  of  those  personal  qualities  are: 

(1)  A  calm  and  quiet  manner.  Quiet  begets 
quiet.  The  teacher's  self-control  impresses  pupils 
with  the  feeling  that  the  teacher  has  inexhaustible 
reserves  which  it  would  be  useless  for  them  even  to 
attempt  to  fathom. 

(2)  Firmness  and  decision.  These  attributes  are 
in  no  way  inconsistent  with  kindness  and  kindliness. 
Pupils  respect  the  firm  hand  and  the  decisive  will. 

(3)  Industry  and  energy.  The  spirit  of  work  is 
contagious.  The  working  teacher  has  working 
pupils. 

(4)  Cheerfulness.  Work  is  not  invariably  related 
to  solemnity.1     A  cheerful  spirit  induces  productive 

1  "Many  teachers  overdo  the  serious  attitude.  They  are  too 
constantly  strenuous.  The  face,  the  manner,  and  the  inner  spirit 
acquire  a  fixity  that  is  too  hard  and  unyielding.  The  teacher 
needs  above  all  things  a  mobility  and  flexibility  of  spirit  that 
fits  easily  into  a  great  variety  of  moods."  — McMurry,  Conflicting 
Principles  in  Teaching,  p.  220.  Also,  "Humor  is  a  solvent  of  stiff 
mannerism.  It  takes  the  rigidity  and  cramp  out  of  one's  mental 
habits.  It  releases  the  strain  and  gets  the  children  back  into  a 
wholesome  attitude  in  readiness  for  a  new  and  stronger  effort. 
Humor  is  the  natural  antidote  to  austerity  and  harshness."  —  p.  221. 

Y 


322     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

work  where  a  "  soured  "  disposition  can  at  best  get 
only  time  service. 

(5)  Sympathy.  By  this  is  meant  the  deep,  true 
sympathy  with  boy-nature  and  girl-nature;  no 
"  molly  coddling/ '  but  a  sincere  desire  to  visualize 
the  pupils  viewpoint,  to  appreciate  his  problems, 
to  get  into  his  life,  and  to  help  him  to  help  himself. 

(6)  Vigilance.  Alertness  of  eye  and  ear,  and 
trained  perceptions  permit  little  that  occurs  in  the 
class  to  escape  notice.  On  the  other  hand,  judgment 
must  be  exercised  as  to  what  to  recognize  and  refer 
to  on  the  moment,  and  what  to  stow  away  in  mem- 
ory to  be  drawn  upon  later  if  needed. 

(7)  Fairness  and  justness.  Pupils  forgive  almost 
anything  else  in  a  teacher  but  unfairness  or  partiality. 

(8)  Order,  system,  and  neatness.  These  virtues 
in  the  teacher  reflect  themselves  in  corresponding 
virtues  in  the  pupils. 

(9)  Scholarship.  This  alone  will  not  discipline 
a  class,  but  the  teacher  who  has  it  may  with  it  com- 
mand the  respect  of  her  pupils,  and  this  respect  is 
the  best  f oundation  upon  which  to  rear  the  super- 
structure of  class  control. 

b.  Specific  cautions.  The  inexperienced  teacher, 
particularly,  needs  help  in  details  of  class  control. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         323 

She  frequently  understands  the  maxims  of  good 
management  better  when  they  are  presented  as 
"  Don'ts  "  than  when  in  positive  form.  Teachers 
must  be  warned  against 

(1)  Neglecting  physical  condition.  The  teacher 
must  appreciate  the  value  in  successful  class  man- 
agement of  normal  physical  environment  for  the 
pupils.  She  must  secure  proper  conditions:  as  to 
the  room,  its  lighting,  equipment,  and  adjustment ; 
as  to  the  air,  its  temperature  and  circulation;  and 
as  to  the  program,  its  results  upon  the  pupils  as 
to  fatigue  and  relaxation. 

(2)  Not  preparing  work.  The  teacher  must 
thoroughly  prepare  her  work.  Good,  honest  en- 
deavor gained  from  pupils  by  well-prepared  teaching 
is  a  certain  preventive  of  disorder.  In  every  form 
of  class  exercise,  the  more  skillful  the  method  em- 
ployed by  the  teacher,  the  less  opportunity  is  there 
for  the  pupils  to  develop  habits  of  misconduct.1 

1  Dr.  Frederic  L.  Luqueer,  principal  of  a  Brooklyn  school, 
frequently  circularizes  his  teachers  by  means  of  printed  cards. 
One  of  these  reads: 

Glenwood  Road  School 

Why  not  begin  a  card  catalog?  Questions,  hints,  methods, 
lesson-plans,  inspirations,  —  all  are  readily  filed  and  found.  The 
unused  may  be  discarded.  Growth  is  invited;  the  intellectual 
house  put  in  order.  F.  L.  L. 


324     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

(3)  Not  working  pupils  enough.  It  is  far  more 
difficult  to  do  nothing  than  to  do  something;  par- 
ticularly is  it  more  difficult  to  make  pupils  do  nothing 
than  to  make  them  do  a  specific  something. 

(4)  Not  maintaining  good  order  at  the  start. 
The  teacher  passes  over  the  early  infractions  with 
the  thought,  if  she  thinks  about  it  at  all,  that  she 
will  discipline  when  there  is  something  more  serious 
to  consider. 

Every  teacher  must  understand  what  " order"  is. 
She  must  have  a  definite  concept  of  the  term,  as  broad 
as  circumstances  permit,  and  then  she  must  demand  and 
get  that  kind  of  order.  We  hear  much  of  secondary 
motives;  and  prizes,1  marks,  merits,  and  the  like  are 
condemned  wholesale.  There  is  danger  in  following  this 
line  of  theory  too  far.  The  motives  of  highly-trained 
adults  frequently,  on  close  analysis,  prove  to  be  sub- 
ject to  the  influence  of  more  or  less  artificial  rewards. 
There  is,  after  all,  no  intrinsically  " secondary "  motive; 
motive  is  secondary  only  in  relation  to  some  primary 
motive  which  for  the  moment  may  be  regarded  as  loftier 
and  less  egoistic.  For  one  person  under  a  certain  con- 
dition that  motive  may  be  basely  secondary  which  for 

1  Syracuse  provides:  "No  teacher  or  other  person  shall  be 
allowed  to  present  in  the  public  schools,  any  prize,  premium  or 
gift  to  any  pupil,  except  such  as  are  permitted  by  order  of  the 
board  of  education.  ..."  —  44. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         325 

another  person  might  be  relatively  high  and  primary. 
In  managing  a  class  the  teacher  must  remember  that 
order  must  be  maintained.  If  it  can  be  secured  by 
appeal  to  high  motives,  then  those  are  the  motives  to 
use;  but  if  these  motives  do  not  reach  the  class,  the 
teacher  must  promptly  use  motives  progressively  less 
high  until  she  comes  upon  one  that  does  reach.  She 
must  have  order.  From  this  level  she  may  then  begin  to 
work  up  through  the  scale,  carrying  the  class  to  higher 
and  higher  ideals.1 

(5)  Not  having  a  carefully  planned  system  for 
the  changing  of  activities.      Good  teaching  method 

1  "There  are  at  least  four  fundamental  principles  necessary  to 
good  discipline :  (1)  it  must  harmonize  with  social  ideals  outside 
the  schoolroom;  (2)  it  must  be  positive  and  constructive  rather 
than  negative  and  restrictive ;  (3)  it  must  be  indirect  rather  than 
direct  in  method ;  and  (4)  it  must  be  administered  on  the  highest 
plane  which  the  pupils  can  understand."  —  p.  246. 

"The  final  principle  of  good  discipline  is  that  it  should  be  ad- 
ministered on  as  high  a  plane  as  the  pupils  are  able  to  respond  to. 
This  requires  a  clear  understanding  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  of 
the  planes  or  levels  of  human  control.  These  planes  are  deter- 
mined both  by  the  means  used  to  secure  control  and  the  motives 
appealed  to  in  the  governed.  There  is  a  steadily  rising  series  of 
these  methods  and  motives,  but  for  clearness'  sake  they  may  be 
reduced  to  three  —  the  plane  of  force,  the  plane  of  personal 
domination,  and  the  plane  of  social  pressure.  The  discipline  on 
these  levels  may  successively  be  called  the  military,  the  personal, 
and  the  social."  —  p.  250,  Walter  R.  Smith,  An  Introduction  to 
Educational  Sociology. 


326  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

carries  the  class  along  safely  during  the  lessons,  but 
the  "  between  times  "  are  bothersome.  The  teacher 
must  learn  both  to  merge  one  exercise  into  another 
so  that  there  are  few  "  breaks,"  and  also  to  plan  the 
inevitable  breaks,  e.g.  the  distribution  of  materials, 
the  changing  of  seats,  the  dismissals,  etc.,  so  that 
they  may  be  executed  without  confusion. 

(6)  Giving  unnecessary  directions  and  commands. 
It  is  far  better  to  give  one  carefully  thought  out, 
rational  order  and  see  that  it  is  obeyed  by  all,  than 
to  give  half  a  dozen  different  and  probably  conflicting 
directions  in  the  same  time. 

(7)  Threatening.  The  quiet  teacher  who  gives 
orders  and  tacitly  but  clearly  expects  them  to  be 
obeyed,  leaves  the  pupils  to  "  guess  "  what  will 
happen  to  them  in  case  of  disobedience,  until  such 
disobedience  occurs,  when  the  punishment  comes 
surely,  promptly,  and  unmistakingly. 

(8)  Scolding  and  using  sarcasm  and  epithets. 
The  teacher  should  use  these  weapons  very  rarely, 
and  then  only  as  deliberate  and  judicially  applied 
punishments.1 

1  "No  punishment  shall  partake  of  the  nature  of  torture  of 
body  or  mind.  All  modes  of  punishment  calculated  to  degrade 
a  pupil,  and  the  use,   on  the  part  of    any  teacher,  of  abusive 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         327 

(9)  Cultivating  the  picturesque  and  bizarre.  It 
seems  to  be  a  perversity  of  substitutes  and  inex- 
perienced teachers  to  run  off  into  spelling  matches, 
tactics,  and  other  exercises  entirely  legitimate  in 
their  place  and  in  the  hands  of  experienced  teachers, 
instead  of  keeping  down  to  business. 

(10)  Driving  the  willful  child  into  obstinacy. 
Instead  of  avoiding  conflict,  the  teacher  is  apt  to 
think  it  her  duty  to  raise  issues  and  "  conquer  "  the 
pupil's  will. 

(11)  Assigning  school  exercises  as  punishments. 
The  wrong  of  doing  this  needs  no  demonstration, 
yet  it  is  a  mistake  made  by  nearly  every  new 
teacher.1 

(12)  Punishing  a  group  for   the  offense  of   an 

individual.     Far  better  is  it  to  let  a  dozen  guilty 

language  toward  the  pupil  or  his  parents,  are  expressly  forbidden." 
—  Indianapolis,  X. 

"Civility  and  politeness  to  pupils  is  commended  to  teachers. 
No  teacher  shall  wound  the  feelings  of  any  pupil  by  distortion  of 
names,  or  by  slighting  or  disparaging  allusions  to  parents  or  friends. 
Violation  of  this  rule  will  be  cause  for  instant  dismissal."  — 
Seattle,  VIII,  21. 

1  "In  no  case  shall  resort  be  held  to  confinement  in  closet  or 
wardrobe,  or  to  other  cruel  or  unusual  punishment  as  a  mode  of 
discipline.  Pupils  shall  not  be  required  to  copy  any  part  of  any 
textbook  or  to  write  any  word  or  sentence  a  great  number  of  times 
as  a  punishment."  — Louisville,  XVIII,  3. 


328     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

pupils  escape  than,  in  punishing  them,  to  punish  a 
single  innocent  pupil. 

c.  Specific  aids.  It  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
principal  to  give  his  teachers  these  specific  sug- 
gestions and  cautions.  He  must  aid  them,  new  and 
experienced  alike,  by  automatic  provisions  for 
treating  disciplinary  situations  themselves.  They 
must  be  given  definite  disciplinary  powers  in  such 
matters  as  punishment  of  pupils,  appealing  to 
parents,  and  so  on.  The  teacher  should  clearly 
understand  how  far  she  may  go  in  the  administration 
of  punishment:  what  limits  she  should  put  upon 
her  use  of  reproof  and  reprimand ;  what  privileges  1 
may  properly  be  withheld  from  pupils;  to  what 
extent  systems  of  merit  and  demerit  may  be  used ; 
how  long  pupils  may  be  detained  after  sessions,  etc. 

1  The  following  is  a  self-explanatory  form : 

Public  School  No.  50,  Brooklyn 

Pass  Card 

Name 

Class Room   

Nature  of  Privilege  Granted 


To  be  retained  during  good  behavior.    Expires 

John  F.  Harris 
Principal 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         329 

Wholesale  detention  of  pupils  is  of  little  good 
effect;  indeed,  it  is  apt  to  be  demoralizing  rather 
than  reforming.  It  is  limited  in  many  cities: 
e.g.  Paterson  and  Rochester,  to  one  hour;  San 
Francisco,  to  forty  minutes;  New  York  and 
Seattle  l  to  thirty  minutes ;  Cleveland,  to  twenty 
minutes.2 

1  Seattle  uses  the  following  form : 

Seattle  Public  Schools 
detention  blank 

Explanation  as  to  Detention.  —  Pupils  who  have  been 
absent  or  who  from  any  cause  have  failed  to  prepare 
their  lessons  satisfactorily  may  be  required  to  recite 
them  after  school. 

Pupils  may  also  be  detained  for  leaving  the  room, 
not  as  a  punishment  for  so  doing,  but  as  a  pledge  of 
good  faith  that  such  a  request  is  necessary  and  una- 
voidable. 

TO  THE  PARENT 

The  bearer 

was  detained  by  me  until minutes  after 

....  o'clock  for 

Dated. ,191 

Teacher. 


I 

C/3 


2  Baltimore  requires  that  "in  no  case  shall  any  teacher  leave  the 
schoolhouse  while  any  pupil  under  his  care  shall  be  detained  after 
the  regular  school  hours."  —  VII,  8.  San  Francisco  has  a  similar 
provision. 


330     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY   SCHOOL 

Whether  or  not  teachers  should  enter  into  direct 
communication  with  parents  in  regard  to  the  dis- 
cipline of  pupils,  it  is  clear  that  there  should  be  no 
misunderstanding  on  the  point  between  principal 
and  teachers.  The  limit  of  responsibility  and  the 
limit  of  restraint  put  upon  the  teachers  should  be 
accurately  denned. 

One  extreme  is  for  the  principal  to  permit  teachers  to 
communicate  directly  with  parents  on  any  matters  con- 
cerning the  welfare  of  pupils.  He  may  go  further  and 
refuse  to  take  part  in  such  communication,  or  to 
assist  teachers  and  parents  in  coming  to  an  understanding, 
thus  throwing  the  teachers  entirely  upon  their  own  re- 
sources. 

The  opposite  course  is  to  prohibit  teachers  from 
writing  notes  to  parents,  having  all  communications 
go  directly  from  the  principal  to  the  parents. 

A  middle  course  is  to  permit  teachers  to  write  notes, 
but  to  have  all  such  notes  countersigned  or  indorsed  by 
the  principal.  Such  a  plan  has  certain  advantages  *  and 
in  following  it,  it  is  helpful  to  prescribe  certain  note  forms 
to  be  used  under  all  ordinary  conditions.  If  " blank' y 
forms  can  be  furnished  to  the  teachers  for  use  in  each 
case,  the  result  is  economy  of  effort  for  the  teacher,  and 
a  guarantee  of  good  arrangement  of  the  note  that  is 
sent. 

1  Cf.  pp.  54,  128. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         331 

A  suggested  form  is : 

Public  School  No.  100, 

Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 

New  York, 19. .. 

M 


Dear  : 

I  am  sorry  to  tell  you  that is  disorderly 

in  the  classroom.  Naturally  this  is  affecting  h . .  school 
work.  Will  you  please  to  give  the  matter  your  attention, 
and  oblige, 

Respectfully, 


Teacher, 
or  body  of  note  as  follows  : 

I  regret  that  I  must  inform  you  of 's  misconduct. 

To-day 

I  am  sure  that  you  do  not  approve  of  such  behavior  and 
trust  that  you  will  cooperate  to  prevent  its  recurrence. 

Where  such  forms  are  supplied  the  teacher  is  not  to  feel 
hampered  by  their  use ;  if  she  wishes  to  send  a  note  not 
in  accordance  with  a  form,  she  should  be  free  to  do  so 
with  the  approval  of  the  principal. 

2.  The  principal  as  disciplinarian.  There  is  a 
greater  duty  placed  upon  the  principal  than  simply 
that  of  training  his  teachers  to  become  good  dis- 


332     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

ciplinarians.  He  must  himself  be  the  chief  disci- 
plinary force  in  the  school.  He  must  not  content 
himself  with  assigning  a  teacher  to  her  classroom, 
telling  her  what  is  expected  of  her,  and  then  leaving 
her  to  work  out  her  own  salvation  entirely.  The 
morale  of  the  school  should  be  something  more 
than  what  is  brought  out  by  the  sum  of  the  inde- 
pendent efforts  of  all  the  teachers.  The  principal 
should  be  the  disciplinary  leader,  the  counselor  and 
guide  to  teachers  and  pupils.  In  respect  to  dis- 
cipline he  has  a  threefold  function :  (a)  To  establish 
school  spirit,  (b)  to  take  precautionary  and  pre- 
ventive measures  against  misconduct,  and  (c)  to 
exercise  his  legal  authority  as  disciplinarian. 

a.  School  spirit.  A  school  "atmosphere/'  school 
loyalty,  school  morale,  esprit  de  corps,  —  all  these, 
so  essential  to  securing  the  best  results  in  the 
development  of  a  school  organization,  cannot  be 
gained  in  a  day.  School  spirit,  pride  in  the  school 
and  thought  for  its  name  and  honor  must  become  a 
matter  of  tradition  and,  once  established,  be  handed 
down  from  one  set  of  pupils  to  another.  The 
influence  of  the  older  pupils  upon  the  younger ;  of 
the  graduates  of  the  school  upon  their  younger 
brothers  and  sisters,  and  their  friends ;  of  the  parents 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         333 

and  other  citizens  in  the  community,  —  all  are  of 
immense  direct  value  in  their  effect  upon  the  con- 
duct of  pupils.  It  counts  for  much  if  the  parents 
advise  their  friends,  "  Get  your  boy  into  No.  100 
if  you  can ;  it  is  a  great  school " ;  if  the  alumni 
think  that  it  is  a  special  honor  to  graduate  from  the 
school;  and  if  the  older  pupils  correct  the  young 
offenders  in  the  name  of  the  school. 

Many  agencies  factor  in  the  development  of  a 
traditional  school  spirit.  We  shall  consider  the 
most  important  of  them.1 

Ideals  and  habits.  In  a  sense  it  is  true,  of  course, 
that  we  are  but  a  bundle  of  habits.  Much  of  the 
educational  process  is  given  over  to  the  establish- 
ment of  correct  habits.  The  school  must  train  pupils 
in  habits.  Aside  from  the  purely  scholastic  habits, 
school  as  well  as  home  training  deals  chiefly  with 
manners  and  morals.  Few  distinctions  can  be 
drawn  between  manners  and  morals ;  but  from  the 
practical  pedagogic  standpoint  the  two  are  inevitably 
interdependent.  For  the  child,  morals  is  largely  a 
matter  of  manners ;  for  the  intelligent  adult,  man- 

1  For  general  discussion  of  the  socialization  of  the  school,  see 
King,  Social  Aspects  of  Education,  on  such  topics  as  the  school 
garden,  school  festival  clubs,  morning  assembly,  playgrounds,  etc. 


334     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

ners  is  largely  a  matter  of  morals.  Hence,  while  we 
would  make  the  adult  mannerly  through  his  moral 
sense,  we  reach  the  young  child's  morals  largely 
through  his  manners.  We  have,  therefore,  a  deep 
reason  for  teaching  manners,  —  as  a  means  to  moral 
ends,  —  as  well  as  the  important  reason  of  teaching 
them  for  their  own  intrinsic  value. 

To  run  the  gamut  from  manners  to  morals  is  to 
go  from  the  mere  social  conventions  such  as  saluta- 
tions, public  deportment,  table  etiquette,  and  the 
like,  through  the  hygienic  requirements  of  cleanli- 
ness, exercise,  sleep,  posture,  dress,  and  so  on,  up 
to  the  recognized  commandments  as  to  truth 
telling,  chastity,  and  reverence.  The  initial  influ- 
ence of  the  home  upon  these  habits  is  not  to 
be  underestimated,  but  we  know  that  we  cannot 
assume  that  they  are  irrevocably  settled  in  the 
first  six  years  of  the  child's  life,  either  for  good  or 
for  bad. 

The  law  of  growth  must  be  recognized:  as  the 
pupil  grows  out  from  under  dogmatic  government  up 
to  self-government,  from  obedience  perforce  to  obe- 
dience to  right,  he  will  find  for  both  his  manners  and 
his  morals  increasingly  intelligent  motives.  Never- 
theless, the  aim  of  disciplinary  education  is  to  con- 


THE   PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         335 

vert  all  these  virtues  into  habits,  so  that  politeness, 
cleanliness,  and  honesty  equally  become  automatic 
expressions  of  a  symmetrically  developed  character. 
The  school,  as  it  takes  over  the  young  child  from 
the  preponderating  influence  of  the  home,  must 
both  strengthen  the  good  habits  it  finds  and  combat 
the  wrong  ones,  whatever  their  origin  and  what- 
ever the  force  of  contending  influences.  Prin- 
cipal and  teachers  must  all  at  every  point  do 
their  utmost  to  inculcate  good  habits  in  manners 
and  morals  among  pupils.  Discipline  of  pupils, 
meaning  their  training  to  do  right,  is  frequently 
construed  by  the  teacher  to  mean  training  them  to 
do  what  she  wants  them  to  do.  If  her  wants  are 
broadly  intelligent,  all  is  well;  but  many  teachers 
attend  chiefly  or  solely  to  those  habits  which  most 
directly  affect  the  pupils'  accomplishment  of  intel- 
lectual tasks.  It  is  quite  possible  for  a  boy  with 
soiled  hands  and  face  to  master  his  geography 
lesson ;  a  girl  can  write  an  interesting  composition 
regardless  of  careless  coiffure  or  slovenly  attire;  a 
pupil  who  is  daily  becoming  more  and  more  of  a 
liar  can  yet  do  keen  work  in  arithmetic;  and  thus 
the  teacher  may  overlook  the  moral  in  her  education 
of  the  intellectual. 


336     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 


One  New  York  City  principal  puts  in  the  hands  of 
her  pupils  the  following  printed  schedule : 

HABIT  FORMATION 
Home  Duties 


At  Home 
Be  courteous. 
Be  obedient. 
Prepare  your  lessons. 
Speak  correctly. 

Rise  without  Being  Called 
Rise  with  regularity. 
Bathe  thoroughly. 
Dress  rapidly. 
Dress  neatly. 

Regularity  of  Meals 
Eat  proper  food. 
Eat  slowly. 
Use  knife  and  fork. 
Be  tidy  at  table. 


Retire  without  Being  Told 
Retire  with  regularity. 
Undress  rapidly. 
Arrange  clothing  neatly. 
Clean  teeth  and  nails. 

Home  Employment  for  Boys 

and  Girls 
Air  rooms. 
Make  beds. 
Brush  floor. 
Dust  rooms. 
Wash  dishes. 
Wipe  dishes. 

Help  with  younger  children. 
Run  errands. 


School  Duties 
Be  courteous.  Be  industrious. 

Be  attentive.  Be  trustworthy. 

Speak  correctly. 

Civic  Duties 
Be  courteous  on  the  street.       Observe  safety  laws. 
Help  to  keep  the  street  tidy.     Respect  public  buildings. 
Speak  gently  and  correctly. 

Katherine  D.  Blake, 
Principal,  P.  S.  No.  6,  Manhattan. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         337 

It  is  the  business  of  the  principal  not  alone  to 
emphasize  the  work  of  moral  education,  but  also  to 
be  careful  not  to  nullify  this  emphasis  by  holding 
the  teacher  and  her  class  too  constantly  to  purely 
intellectual  standards.  To  preach  to  teachers  the 
necessity  for  moral  training,  and  then  to  rate  them 
solely  on  the  absolute  results  their  classes  show  on 
written  examinations,  is  to  make  a  pretense  and  a 
farce  of  character  building. 

Good  habits,  it  scarce  need  be  said,  must  be  taught 
first  of  all  by  example.  The  Cleveland  Board  of 
Education  puts  it  well :  "It  shall  be  a  duty  of  the 
first  importance  on  the  part  of  teachers  to  be  models 
in  personal  appearance  and  in  conduct,  for  the 
pupils  under  their  care.  They  are  especially  en- 
joined to  avail  themselves  of  every  opportunity  to 
inculcate  neatness,  promptness,  politeness,  cheerful- 
ness, truthfulness,  patriotism,  and  all  the  virtues 
which  contribute  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  schools, 
the  good  order  of  society,  and  the  safety  of  our 
American  citizenship.' ' 

The  establishment  and  sustenance  of  moral  habits 
is  dependent  upon  the  development  of  proper  ideals. 
As  "  the  emotional  element  is  dominant,"  and  as 
"  art,  literature  (including  poetry,  the  drama,  and 


338     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

fiction),  music,  and  religion  are  the  great  media  for 
the  transmission  of  ideals  and  as  such  fulfill  an 
educative  function  far  more  fundamental  than  our 
didactic  pedagogy  has  ever  realized,"  x  it  is  evident 
that  this  phase  of  the  school  life  must  be  deliberately 
enforced  and  constantly  reenforced.  Principal  and 
teachers  should  at  every  convenient  opportunity 
hold  before  the  pupils  stirring  examples  of  loyalty, 
of  "  team-work,"  of  sacrifice,  as  discovered  in  his- 
tory, geography,  and  literature,  and  in  the  daily 
events  in  school  life  and  in  the  great  world-life, 
occasionally  leading  the  pupils  to  make  the  direct 
inference  as  applied  to  school  spirit. 

Letters  of  recommendation.  That  school  counts 
in  business  may  be  brought  home  to  pupils  by 
keeping  before  them  the  fact  that  school  ideals  are 
business  ideals  and  that  if  they  would  cultivate 
the  worthwhile  business  habits  they  must  first 
cultivate  those  habits  in  the  school  life. 

An  established  and  advertised  policy  in  issu- 
ing letters  of  recommendation  to  pupils  leaving 
school  can  be  made  to  contribute  toward  their  good 
conduct  while  they  are  yet  in  school.  These  letters 
may  be  in  accordance  with  certain  forms,  copies 
1  Bagley,  Educative  Process,  p.  224. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         339 

of  which  are  kept  posted  in  the  classrooms  as  a 
constant  reminder  to  the  pupils  that  the  school 
record  "counts"  in  this  practical  way. 

The  following  set  of  forms  is  suggested : 

Letters  of  Recommendation  Issued  from 
Public  School  No.  100 
Form  One 

Public  School  No.  100,  New  York, 

I9-- 

To  Whom  It  May  Concern: 

I  take  pleasure  in  recommending   , 

who  has  been  a  pupil  of  this  school  for years.     He 

(she)  has  been  punctual  and  regular  in  attendance,  industrious 
and  successful  in  his  (her)  work,  and  courteous  and  well- 
behaved  in  every  way.  He  (she)  has  been  one  of  our  very- 
best  pupils,  and  I  am  confident  merits  your  most  favorable 
consideration. 

Respectfully, 

> 

Teacher. 
I  am  very  glad  to  indorse  the  above  statements. 

> 

Principal. 

Form  Two 

Public  School  No.  100,  New  York, 

I9-- 

To  Whom  It  May  Concern: 

I  take  pleasure  in  recommending  to  your  favorable  notice, 

,  who  has  been  a  pupil  of  this 


340     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

school  for years.    He  (she)  has  been  punctual  and 

regular  in  attendance,  industrious  and  well-behaved. 

Respectfully, 


I  am  glad  to  indorse  the  above  statements. 


> 

Teacher. 


Principal. 

Form  Three 

Public  School  No.  ioo,  New  York, 

*9- 

To  Whom  It  May  Concern: 

I   hereby  recommend    ,   who 

has  been  a  pupil  of  this  school  for years.    He  (she) 

has  been  passably  punctual  and  regular  in  attendance  and 
fairly  well-behaved  and  industrious. 

Respectfully, 


I  indorse  the  above. 


> 

Teacher. 


> 

Principal, 


Form  Four 

Public  School  No.  ioo,  New  York, 

19 ••• 

To  Whom  It  May  Concern: 

I  am  asked  to  recommend    , 

who  has  been  a  pupil  of  this  school  for years.    I  regret 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         341 

that  I  can  only  say  that  he  has  been  irregular  in  attendance 
and  punctuality,  poor  in  his  work,  and  generally  ill-behaved. 

Respectfully, 


> 

Teacher. 

I  am  sorry  that  I  must  indorse  the  above. 

y 

Principal. 

In  case  of  graduates,  the  words  "  and  who  was  grad- 
uated  19. . "  are  added  to  the  first  sentence 

in  either  One  or  Two. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  all  of  the  above  are  addressed  to 
whom  it  may  concern,  and  hence  are  designed  to  be  given 
to  pupils  upon  their  own  request.  It  is  suggested  that 
requests  by  mail  from  outsiders  for  information  con- 
cerning pupils  be  replied  to  in  the  following  form : 

Public  School  No.  100, 

Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 

*9    • 

M 


Dear  : 

Replying  to  your  favor   of  ,  requesting 

information  regarding    ,  I 

beg  to  state  that  the  following  is  a  transcript  of  h . .  record 

for  the  last  years  ( terms)  in  which 

...  he  was  a  pupil  here : 


342     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 


Term 

Grade 

Days 
Absent  J 

Feb.-June,  19. .  . 
Sep.  \  .  -Jan.  \  . 
Feb.-June,  19.  .  . 
Sep.  \  .  -Jan.  \  . 
Feb.-June,  19. .  . 

Lessons 


Conduct 


Our  record,  further,  shows  that  ...  he  was  born 

19. . ,  admitted  to  this  school ,  19. . ,  and  dis- 
charged, (graduated) ,  19. . . 

Respectfully, 


Principal. 

The  assembly.  The  school  assembly,  and  in 
lesser  measure  the  class  "  opening  exercises/ ' l  is  a 
valuable  instrument  for  the  fixing  of  ideals  and 
the  establishment  of  esprit  de  corps.  The  individual 
is  sensitive  to  the  sentiment  of  the  group  and  the 
principal  should  use  every  means  to  make  the  school 
sentiment,  which  will  influence  every  pupil,  of  the 
right  character. 

Schemes  for  making  the  assembly  an  occasion  of 
profit  and  interest  and  the  means   for   the   culti- 

1  The  following  is  a  typical  provision : 

"Each  school,  either  collectively  or  in  classes,  shall  be  opened 
by  the  reading,  without  comment,  of  a  chapter  in  the  Holy  Bible 
and  the  use  of  the  Lord's  prayer.  The  Douay  version  may  be 
used  by  those  pupils  who  prefer  it."  —  Baltimore,  XVI. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         343 

vation  of  ideals  are  innumerable.1    A  few  are  here 
noted  suggestively : 

(1)  Recitations  by  pupils.  Avoid  show  work  of 
the  gifted;  better  the  successful  effort  of  the  dif- 
fident pupil  to  overcome  his  embarrassment  and 
develop  his  self-respect  than  the  exploitation  of 
the  students  specially  trained  in  elocution.  In 
the  subject  matter,  keep  closely  to  the  regular 
work  of  the  classes.  There  is  ample  material  that 
relates  to  or  supplements  the  subjects  of  study, 
without  bringing  in  popular  recitation  "  pieces." 

(2)  Discussions  by  pupils  of  current  events. 

(3)  Studies  of  pictures  and  other  objects  of  art. 

(4)  Musical  studies  of  all  kinds,  again  omitting 
disproportionate  individual  exploitation. 

(5)  Celebration  of  special  days,  such  as  birthdays, 
battle  days,  anniversaries  of  inventions,  discoveries, 
etc. 

(6)  Flag  drill  and  other  distinctively  patriotic 
exercises. 

(7)  Outside  speakers.  Not  every  one  can  talk 
interestingly  to  children,  but  there  are  many  who 
can  bring  to  the  pupils  words  of  practical  everyday 

1  See  The  School  Assembly,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Reference 
and  Research,  Board  of  Education,  New  York  City,  191 7. 


344     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

wisdom  and  inspiration.  Pupils  will  give  close 
attention  to  policemen,  firemen,  or  other  familiar 
city  personages  who  address  them  on  the  technical- 
ities of  their  special  professions  as  related  to  schools 
and  school  children.  Addresses  by  alumni,  giving 
tangible  evidence  of  what  schooling  means  in  results, 
are  welcome.  Pupils  are  interested  also  in  hearing 
of  the  records  made  by  graduates  of  the  school  in 
their  post-graduate  careers.1 

(8)  Motion  pictures,  when  equipment  can  be 
secured.  The  motion  picture  as  an  educational 
instrument  must  be  taken  into  account  by  the 
principal.  Its  use  as  a  medium  of  entertainment  is 
naturally  exploited  by  those  whose  motives  are 
solely  commercial.  The  school  has  the  grave  duty  of 
counteracting  the  unwholesome  effects  of  the  com- 
mercialized "  movie  "  both  by  the  general  develop- 
ment of  taste  and  ideals  and  by  the  even  more 
effective  method  of  competition,  using  the  motion 
picture  in  the  school  with  selected  material.2 

1  Cf.  New  Haven,  "No  person,  not  connected  with  the  school, 
shall  be  invited  or  allowed  to  address  pupils  or  teachers  of  any 
school  or  take  part  in  any  entertainment  at  any  school  building 
without  the  approval  of  the  Superintendent."  —  V,  145. 

2  See  two  articles  on  the  subject  by  Lawrence  A.  Averill  in  the 
Educational  Review,  November,  191 5,  and  May,  1918. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         345 

Athletics.  School  athletics,  especially  those 
branches  which  develop  team  play,  may,  if  properly 
organized  and  carefully  supervised,  promote  physical 
development,  reenforce  the  scholastic  effort  of 
pupils,  and  stimulate  school  spirit.  "  Every  one 
believes  that  ample  opportunity  for  physical  exercise 
should  be  afforded  all  school  children,  but  there  are 
limits  to  the  indulgence  of  this  taste,  and  it  is  impor- 
tant that  neither  the  moral  standards  of  the  par- 
ticipants should  be  debased  by  improper  practices 
nor  should  their  health  be  impaired  by  overexertion. 
Neither  should  athletics  be  allowed  to  assume  too 
important  a  place  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  to  the 
disadvantage  of  academic  subjects."  l 

Pupil  organizations.  Organization  of  the  pupils 
within  the  school,  along  somewhat  social  lines,  may 
be  possible  under  certain  conditions,  and  thus  con- 
tribute to  school  spirit.  Musical  clubs,  photographic 
clubs,  literary  societies,  scientific  meetings,  and  so 
on,  practically  without  limit,  are  all  within  the  range 
of  possibility.  It  is  wise,  however,  not  to  permit  too 
great  a  diversity  of  interest  and  dissipation  of  energy.2 

1  Annual  Report  of  the  School  Committee  of  the  City  of  Boston, 
1906,  p.  34. 

2  All  organizations  must,  of  course,  be  kept  under  the  strict 
control  of  the  principal.     Covered  by  regulations  in  several  cities, 


346     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

School  publications.  A  school  journal  may,  with 
supervisory  aid,  be  conducted  by  pupil  editors  and 
managers,  and  give  a  legitimate  expression  to  intelli- 
gent interest  on  behalf  of  a  large  number  of  pupils. 
A  sufficient  amount  of  advertising  matter  to  support 
the  publication  of  such  a  paper  may  usually  be  se- 
cured by  a  little  enterprise.1 

e.g.  Minneapolis:  "No  organization  or  society  of  pupils  of  any 
kind,  or  for  any  purpose,  either  secret  or  open,  shall  be  allowed  to 
exist  in  any  elementary  or  high  school,  except  by  written  request 
of  the  principal  indorsed  by  the  Superintendent  and  approved  by 
the  Board  of  Education.  Any  pupil  becoming  a  member  of  such 
organization  or  society  in  violation  of  any  of  the  provisions  of  this 
rule  may  be  suspended  or  dismissed,  or  prevented  from  graduating 
or  participating  in  school  honors."  —  IX,  7. 

1  Public  School  73,  Brooklyn,  publishes  a  semi-annual  journal, 
The  Comet.  Mr.  Ambrose  Cort,  principal,  gives  the  following  sum- 
mary of  the  proposition : 

"It  is  published  in  January  and  June,  sells  at  10  cents  the  copy. 
We  sell  700  or  800  of  the  1000  printed  largely  to  pupils  and  alumni. 

"We  get  about  $40  worth  of  ads.,  thus  raising  in  all  about  $110, 
from  which  wTe  pay  the  expense  of  $90  for  printing,  and  have  a 
surplus  for  the  School  Fund. 

"Older  boys  get  the  smaller  ads.  The  principal  gets  the  larger 
ones.  Every  class  has  a  Comet  representative,  who  assists  the 
teacher  in  sales  and  in  getting  literary  or  news  material  from  the 
class. 

"The  assistant  principal  and  her  board  of  teachers  do  most  of 
the  work  of  gathering  material;  viz.,class*notes,  honor  rolls, com- 
positions, news  of  school  activities,  etc. 

"The  principal  writes  the  editorials,  including  a  message  to 


yTHE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         347 

Alumni  organizations.  An  enthusiastic  alumni 
association  can  give  material  support  to  a  school.  It 
is  better  to  have  no  association,  however,  than  to 
have  one  that  is  weak  or  uninterested  in  the  school 
itself.  In  a  new  school,  an  association  can  be 
organized  with  the  first  graduating  class.  The 
principal  may  inspire  this  organization  and  for  a 
while  direct  its  energies,  but  as  the  years  go  on,  he 
should  gradually  withdraw  his  prompting,  leaving 
the  work  to  be  done  entirely  by  the  graduates  them- 
selves. They  may  give  material  donations  to  the 
school  from  time  to  time ;  but  nothing  of  this  kind, 
excellent  as  it  is,  can  equal  in  value  the  more 
intangible  moral  influence  of  an  organized  body 
of  alumni  who  themselves  reflect  in  their  speech 
and  conduct  the  high  ideals  of  a  school  which  has 
won  their  devotion  and  loyalty. 

children  or  parents  or  both,  on  an  important  phase  of  the  school's 
life. 

"This  month's  issue  we  propose  devoting  largely  to  a  description 
of  our  war  work;  pictures  of  soldiers,  once  boys  of  the  school; 
letters  from  soldiers ;  appeals  to  patriotism,  etc. 

"I  believe  that  this  paper  helps  'school  spirit,'  furnishes  in- 
centives to  endeavor,  and  helps  to  form  enlightened  community 
sentiment  through  children  and  parent  readers.  We  tackle  such 
questions  as  children's  diet,  sleep,  amusements,  employment, 
daily  speech,  and  habits  in  general." 


348     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

School  savings  banks.  Many  schools,  in  a  number 
of  different  cities,  have  instituted  a  banking  system 
by  which  pupils  are  encouraged  to  make  deposits 
even  of  one  cent,  thus  inculcating  ideals  and  habits 
of  thrift  and  adding  another  factor  in  emphasizing 
school  spirit.1 

School  gardens.  There  are  many  arguments  in 
favor  of  establishing  and  maintaining  gardens  as  a 
recognized  adjunct  to  the  school  life,  if  not,  indeed, 
as  a  recognized  part  of  the  curriculum.  They  may 
be  regarded,  too,  as  a  school  unifying  force,  one 
more  agency  for  the  inculcation  of  school  spirit. 
Many  cities  officially  recognize  the  school  garden 
as  an  integral  part  of  the  school  organization,  and 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  maintains  a 
Division  of  School  and  Home  Gardening. 

For  practical  counsel  on  the  subject,  see  the  publica- 
tions of  the  "  School  Garden  Association  of  America  "  of 
which  Mr.  Van  Evrie  Kilpatrick,  principal,  Public  School 

1  Board  of  Education,  City  of  New  York,  Document  No.  6  —  1914, 
School  Savings  Banks,  presents  a  report  made  by  Dr.  Edward  B. 
Shallow,  Associate  City  Superintendent,  in  which  is  outlined  "a 
plan  under  which  such  banks  should  be  organized  and  managed." 

Minneapolis  uses  a  system  of  stamp  accounts. 

Kansas  City  gives  prizes  to  the  schools  and  classrooms  having 
the  largest  number  of  school  savings  bank  books  in  proportion  to 
number  of  pupils  enrolled. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         349 

26,  Manhattan,  New  York,  is  president.  He  says : 
"The school  garden  should  be  first  placed  on  the  school 
grounds  and  then  at  the  homes  of  the  school  children. 
A  school  garden  that  does  not  surely  increase  the  home 
gardens  is  not  worth  a  moment's  consideration.  Better 
home  gardening  should  follow  school  gardening  in  the 
same  way  that  better  accountancy  in  the  counting  house 
follows  arithmetic  in  the  classroom.  There  should  be  a 
school  garden  at  every  schoolhouse  in  the  land,  how- 
ever small  that  garden  may  be.  It  may  be  a  greenhouse 
on  the  roof,  it  may  be  a  lawn  in  the  front  of  the  school, 
or  it  may  be  a  vegetable  plot  beside  the  school.  The 
work  that  is  not  good  enough  for  teacher  to  do  is  not 
good  enough  for  pupil  to  do.  To  plant  a  garden  at  school 
and  not  properly  take  care  of  it  may  justly  be  termed 
an  educational  tragedy." 

"In  every  graded  school  there  should  be  at  least 
one  teacher  who  is  able  to  teach  the  sciences  and 
gardening.  The  equipment  and  supplies  necessary  for 
that  work  should  be  supplied  directly  by  the  Board  of 
Education." 

Frederick  L.  Holtz,  Nature  Study,  has  a  chapter  on 
"The  School  Garden." 

b.  Preventive  measures.  The  principal  cannot 
let  the  question  of  the  morale  of  his  school  rest  solely 
on  the  expression  of  school  spirit,  no  matter  how 
many  factors  may  contribute  to  the  establishment  of 


350     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

high  ideals.  There  will  always  be  the  certain 
proportion  of  untrained  or  unreformed  individual 
pupils.  Precautionary  and  preventive  measures 
must  be  taken  at  every  point  to  anticipate  and 
forestall  difficulty.  A  few  definite  school  regulations, 
general  in  their  application,  may  be  issued,  so  that 
certain  classes  of  offenses  may  be  clearly  dealt  with 
as  violations  of  specific  school  rules. 

Fixed  responsibility.  Constant  responsibility  for 
the  conduct  of  pupils  must  be  placed  upon  teachers. 
A  teacher,  upon  leaving  her  pupils  in  the  classroom, 
should  always  notify  the  teacher  of  the  nearest  room 
of  her  temporary  absence.  The  other  teacher  there- 
upon becomes  responsible  for  the  safety  and  conduct 
of  the  first  teacher's  pupils  in  addition  to  her  own. 
This  does  not  imply  a  too  detailed  supervision  of 
these  pupils,  but  it  does  mean  that  the  pupils  real- 
ize, as  a  matter  of  course,  that  they  are  always 
answerable  to  some  person  in  authority  in  the 
school.  Moreover,  in  case  of  emergency  such  as  a 
fire  drill,  pupils  are  protected,  and  in  case  of  accident 
or  other  unfavorable  occurrence,  the  public  has  the 
assurance  that  reasonable  effort  was  made  by  the 
school  administrators  to  prevent  it. 

Some    supervision  of  pupils   leaving    the    class- 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         351 

room  individually  during  the  session  is  a  preventive 
of  disorder  (see  p.  214).1 

Prevention  of  forgeries.  The  attempts  of  misbe- 
having pupils  to  thwart  the  cooperation  of  parents 
and  teachers  by  clever  forgery  of  signatures,  etc., 
must  be  met  by  cleverness  in  their  detection  and 
punishment.2  The  whole  effort  of  the  principal  will, 
of  course,  be  in  the  direction  of  developing  in  pupils 
the  habit  of  right  doing  for  right's  sake,  and  of 
fostering  the  highest  possible  ideals  as  motives  for 
good  conduct.  Nevertheless,  throughout  the  long 
process  of  development  of  these  lofty  ideals,  the 
pupils  must  always  feel  that  wrong  conduct  will  be 
detected  and  punished  by  those  in  authority  and 
that  it  is  useless  to  try  to  "  win  out  "  along  wrong 
lines. 

Attendance  of  pupils.  Irregular  attendance  of 
pupils  is  a  source  of  difficulty  in  many  directions. 
In  addition  to  the  disastrous  consequences  to  progress 
in  scholarship  there  is  the  establishment  of  a  bad 

1  "No  mail  shall  be  delivered  to  pupils  at  school  buildings, 
except  in  connection  with  authorized  publications  and  athletics." 
—  Syracuse,  III. 

2  "Any  pupil  who  forges  the  name  of  any  parent  or  guardian,  or 
other  person  authorized  to  sign  excuses  or  requests,  or  knowingly 
presents  a  forged  paper,  may  be  suspended."  —  Portland,  Ore.,  11. 


352     THE   MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

habit,  a  lessening  of  respect  for  the  school  as  a 
serious  occupation,  and  a  tendency  to  disorder  due 
to  the  loss  of  continuity  in  lessons.1 

Regular  attendance  should,  of  course,  be  secured 
through  the  pupil's  liking  for  school.  In  the  early 
years  he  attends  chiefly  for  the  immediate  interests 
created  and  satisfied  by  the  school.  Later  there  is 
added  the  response  to  a  sense  of  duty.  He  realizes 
the  value  of  education  and  obligation  to  society. 
The  pupil  must  feel  that  absence  from  school  is  a 
loss,  his  loss ;  and  part  of  the  duty  of  the  principal 
is  to  make  his  school  something  that  pupils  cannot 
afford  to  lose. 

But  even  with  the  most  attractive  of  schools, 
using  the  word  attractive  in  its  best  and  broadest 
sense,  many  pupils  will  be  unnecessarily  absent  and 
tardy.  It  then  becomes  a  matter  of  discipline,  and 
as  such  must  be  governed  by  the  law  of  growth. 
At  first,  the  attendance  of  the  child  is  a  matter  of 
obedience:  he  must  go  to  school.  If  in  no  other 
way,  he  must  be  brought  daily  by  some  one  at  home, 
until  the  habit  of  school-going  has  been  established. 

1  A  word  of  caution  may  be  given  to  the  effect  that  absence  may 
be  too  severely  emphasized,  particularly  in  the  case  of  higher-grade 
girls.     (See  p.  225.) 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         353 

Later,  he  should  attend  as  a  matter  of  reason  :  He 
ought  to  go  to  school. 

Practically  everywhere  the  law  puts  clearly  upon 
parents  the  duty  of  sending  their  children  to  school. 
It  correspondingly  gives  teachers  the  right  to  demand 
satisfactory  accounting  from  parents  when  their 
children  are  absent. 

Kansas  City  uses  the  following  printed  form : 

Notice  of  Absence 

Kansas  City,  Mo., 191 . . 

School 

M 

Will  you  kindly  inform  me  why   twas 

absent  from  school ? 

The  following  are  the  Rules  of  the  Board  governing  such 
cases : 

[Five  paragraphs  follow] 

Respectfully  yours, 


Teacher. 

There  is  a  corresponding  form  for  tardiness. 

Rochester  provides :  "Parents  are  required  to  furnish 
a  written  excuse  for  each  absence.  This  excuse  must 
state  the  specific  reason  for  the  absence.  A  general 
statement  that  the  parent  has  kept  the  child  at  home 
cannot  be  accepted."  —  V,  5. 

The  Portland,  Ore.,  board  "  explicitly  delegates  to 
2  A 


354     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

teachers  the  right  to  judge  of  the  sufficiency  of  all  excuses 
not  otherwise  especially  provided  for.  In  case  of  doubt, 
the  teacher  will  consult  the  principal.' ' 

Some  cities  require  that  written  excuses  shall  be  pre- 
served by  the  teacher  until  the  end  of  the  term. 

San  Francisco  provides  that  "Each  pupil  shall  have  a 
particular  desk,  and  shall  keep  the  same,  and  the  floor 
beneath,  in  a  neat  and  orderly  condition,"  and  that 
"Any  pupil  who  shall  be  absent  one  week,  without 
giving  notice  to  the  teacher,  shall  lose  all  claim  to  his 
particular  desk  for  the  remainder  of  the  term,  and  shall 
not  be  considered  a  member  of  the  school." — 57, 120,  (&). 

Indianapolis  provides  that  "Absences  which  occur 
when  the  attendance  of  the  pupil  would  occasion  a  serious 
and  imprudent  exposure  to  health  shall  be  regarded  the 
same  as  absence  occasioned  by  sickness."  —  XX,  6. 

Albany,  on  the  reverse  of  its  report  card  sent  to  parents, 
includes  the  statement : 

"A  written  excuse  for  absence  and  tardiness  is  re- 
quired. The  only  legitimate  excuses  under  the  Com- 
pulsory Education  Law  are : 

a.  Personal  illness. 

b.  Illness  in  the  family  requiring  the  child's  services  for 
a  day  or  two. 

c.  Weather  conditions  that  make  it  unsafe  for  a  child 
to  be  out." 

Truancy.  In  spite  of  continuous  efforts  there 
are  still  baffling  cases  of  willful,  persistent  absence 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         355 

which  we  call  truancy.  Compulsory  education  laws 
in  most  States  provide  attendance  officers  whose 
duty  it  is  to  carry  the  authority  of  the  State  into  the 
homes  and  on  the  streets  in  a  search  for  and  capture 
of  truants.  The  principal  usually  has  certain 
definite  duties  of  cooperation  with  these  officers, 
varying  in  the  different  States,  which  affect  his 
pedagogic  treatment  of  truancy.  Among  general 
propositions  may  be  noted  the  following : 

1.  Eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  freedom  from 
extensive  truancy.  Teachers  must  be  trained  to 
notify  parents  promptly  of  absence  of  pupils  and  to 
secure  satisfactory  excuses  from  pupils  upon  their 
return.  They  should  err,  if  at  all,  on  the  safe  side, 
and  be  over-careful  rather  than  not  cautious  enough. 
They  must  feel  their  responsibility,  and  not  permit 
unexplained  absence  to  run  without  reporting  it. 

2.  To  deal  effectively  with  the  truant,  the  prin- 
cipal must  sympathize  with  him  and  understand  his 
temptation. 

It  is  certainly  not  difficult  to  understand  the  truant. 
Two  factors  enter  into  the  make-up  of  the  human  indi- 
vidual, heredity  and  environment. 

Heredity  is  twofold,  general  and  special. 

In  general,  the  boy  inherits  from  centuries  of  the  race 


356     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

the  nomadic  instinct.  For  millions  of  years  his  ances- 
tors were  living  out  of  doors;  it  is  for  but  a  compara- 
tively brief  period  that  any  of  them  have  been  going 
to  school.  The  "natural"  instinct,  then,  is  to  listen  to 
the  call  of  the  wild ;  the  call  to  the  schoolroom  is  a  modern 
and  conventional  one.  What  is  more  natural  than  that 
a  child,  even  though  he  has  been  drilled  for  several  years 
in  the  conventional  habit  of  school-going,  should  occa- 
sionally lapse  into  the  ancestral  state  for  a  day  or  two  ? 
Indeed,  what  adult  is  there  with  red  blood  in  his  circu- 
lation, who  does  not  at  some  time  rebel  against  the 
restraints  of  that  conventionalism,  which,  as  Dr.  Van 
Dyke  says,  "transforms  the  rhythm  of  life  into  a  loga- 
rithm.'' 

Specifically,  the  boy  has  a  more  immediate  inheritance 
which  may  make  or  mar  his  natural  equipment.  A  very 
few  generations  of  ill-nurtured  or  disease-succumbing 
parents  suffice  to  launch  the  child  into  life  with  a  severe 
handicap  in  the  form  of  serious  physical  defects.  To 
persist  in  going  to  school  when  school  offers  no  appeal, 
and  when  to  stay  out  of  doors  is  to  follow  the  path  of 
least  resistance,  demands  of  a  boy  a  certain  amount  of 
dynamic  force.  When,  however,  the  immediate  inherit- 
ance of  the  child  is  a  defective  body  and  unresisting 
will,  the  result  is  a  mental  inertia  which  must  be  over- 
come before  the  conventional  school  can  hold  him  against 
the  natural  out-of-doors. 

The  environment  factor  is  manifold,  but  chiefly,  for 
the  truant,  it  is  of  the  home  and  of  the  school,  and  it 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         357 

behooves  us  to  consider  both.  The  home  conditions  may 
be  squalid  and  the  home  forces  may  be  against  the  in- 
fluence of  the  school  and  in  favor  of  driving  the  boy  to 
the  bad.  On  the  other  hand,  the  school  itself,  at  least 
the  particular  class  and  teacher  that  represent  the 
school  environment  of  the  truant,  may  be  such  as  to  repel 
rather  than  attract.1 

All  of  these  factors  must  be  given  consideration  by  the 
principal  in  dealing  with  the  individual  truant  before  he 
can  meet  him  on  a  basis  of  sympathetic  understanding. 
If  the  truant  feels  that  the  principal  knows  what  he  is 
"up  against/ '  he  is  much  more  likely  to  listen  to  argu- 
ment and  appeal. 

1  Of  eighty-five  truants  examined  by  the  Bureau  of  Child  Hy- 
giene of  the  New  York  City  Department  of  Health,  "In  nine  in- 
stances the  family  history  appeared  to  have  a  definite  bearing  on 
the  truancy,  the  father  being  alcoholic  in  five  cases,  insane  in  one, 
and  tuberculous  in  one.  In  two  cases  the  brother  of  the  truant 
was  epileptic.  In  two  instances  the  truant  himself  gave  a  history 
of  convulsions.  In  eight  instances  the  examining  physician 
reported  '  stigmata  of  degeneration  present.*  The  blood  pressure 
showed  nothing  abnormal." 

"There  were  64  truants  with  some  obstruction  to  nasal  breath- 
ing. Many  of  these  obstructions  were  of  traumatic  origin.  Eye- 
sight was  defective  in  27  out  of  77  truants,  not  being  tested  in  8. 
The  proportion  of  bony  deformities  was  high,  as  witness  the 
following  number  of  cases  found  in  84  truants:  bowed  legs,  2; 
lordosis,  3  ;  kyphosis,  3  ;  scoliosis,  10 ;  flat  foot,  6 ;  rachitic  chest, 
2.  An  irritable  heart  was  reported  in  7  cases,  and  endocarditis  in 
10.  The  heart  was  normal  in  68  cases.  Pulmonary  tuberculosis 
was  encountered  in  only  one  individual." 


358     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

3.  If  the  principal  can  get  into  sympathetic 
relations  with  one  truant,  he  can  often  successfully 
use  him  as  a  means  of  influence  with  other  truants, 
for  the  truant  infrequently  travels  alone. 

4.  Discipline  cases  of  pupils  inclined  to  truancy 
must  be  handled  with  particular  skill,  lest  in  reach- 
ing the  lesser  offense  the  pupil  is  prompted  to  com- 
mit the  greater  one  of  staying  away  from  school 
altogether. 

Punctuality.  Lateness  for  younger  pupils  is 
usually  the  fault  of  the  parents,  whose  cooperation 
must  be  secured ;  for  older  pupils  it  can  be  made  a 
matter  of  duty,  and  with  them  the  emphasis  may  be. 
placed  upon  the  training  for  life,  and  especially  for 
business. 

Louisville  provides:  "Any  pupil  who  shall  not  be 
present  punctually  .  .  .  before  being  allowed  to  take 
his  place  in  his  class  shall,  if  the  principal  request  it,  pre- 
sent an  excuse  signed  by  the  parent  or  guardian  stating 
the  cause  of  tardiness.' '  —  14,  6.  It  would  seem,  how- 
ever, that  no  pupil  should  ever  be  excluded  from  the 
school  building  for  lateness,  either  by  rule  or  by  spirit ; 
the  stimuli  to  truancy  are  sufficiently  plentiful  without 
adding  this  one. 

Many  forms  of  notes  to  apply  to  attendance  and  punc- 
tuality could  be  devised,  but  local  conditions  will  so  far 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         359 

govern  the  exact  wording  as  to  make  inadvisable  the 
suggestion  of  more  than  the  following : 

(1)  Public  School  No.  100, 

Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 

New  York, 19. .. 

M 


Dear : 

I  am  sorry  to  inform  you  that has  been  late 

times  this 

By  seeing  that  . .  he  is  punctual  in  the  future,  you  will 
oblige, 

Respectfully, 


Principal. 
(2)  Public  School  No.  100, 

Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 

New  York, 19.. . 


M.... 
Dear. 


has  been  late times  in  the  last 

weeks. 

It  is  extremely  important  that  the  habit  of  punctuality 
shall  become  fixed  in  a  pupil's  school  life.     Will  you  therefore 

kindly  cooperate  with  us  in  our  effort  to  secure 's 

punctual  attendance. 

Respectfully, 

> 

Principal. 


360     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

Many  schemes  for  securing  attendance  and  punc- 
tuality are  variously  popular.1  To  appeal  to  class 
spirit  and  to  class  rivalry  is  a  favorite  method;  to 
designate  by  some  decoration,  a  flag,  for  example, 
the  class  having  perfect  attendance  and  punctual- 
ity is  another;  and  so  on.  Such  plans  usually 
produce  results,  but  even  in  their  use  there  should 
be  a  constant  struggle  to  get  away  from  this  to 
some  higher  motive. 

By  some  it  is  thought  logical  to  reward  a  class 
which  has  made  a  record  for  a  stated  period  by  dis- 
missing those  pupils  some  minutes  earlier  on  the 
last  day  of  the  period ;  but  it  would  seem  as  though 
such  a  reward  were  based  upon  a  wrong  conception 
of  school.     Should  pupils  be  encouraged  to  regard 

1  Dayton  uses  a  card  of  honor : 

Dayton  Public  Schools 
Card  of  Honor 

Earned  by 

who  has  not  been  absent  one-half 
day  nor  tardy  once  this  semester 

*?iv. 

Frank  W.  Miller, 
Superintendent  of  Instruction. 

A  similar  card  is  used  for  "not  less  than  90%  in  any  subject 
this  semester." 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         361 

school  as  something  to  be  avoided,  and  exemption 
from  participation  in  school  exercises  something  to 
be  desired  and  striven  for?  Would  it  not  be  more 
logical  to  reward  all  pupils  who  have  met  the  condi- 
tion of  a  perfect  record  in  attendance  —  or,  in  fact, 
any  other  desirable  condition  —  with  the  privilege 
of  remaining  beyond  the  time  of  the  regular  school 
session?  It  would  be  a  poor  teacher  indeed  who 
could  not  make  an  extra  half  hour  or  hour,  indoors 
or  out,  once  a  week  or  once  a  month,  so  interesting 
that  pupils  would  strive  to  earn  the  privilege  of 
sharing  it  with  her. 

c.  Principal's  legal  responsibility.  The  principal 
is  the  ultimate  authority  in  the  school.  He  is  the 
court  of  appeal  before  which  teachers  present  their 
cases  against  pupils.  He  should  constantly  strive 
to  establish  such  a  school  spirit  and  to  exercise 
such  precautionary  supervision  as  will  make  ex- 
ceptional a  serious  outbreak  on  the  part  of  any 
pupil.  Nevertheless  there  will  be  cases  where 
the  teacher  exhausts  her  pedagogic  skill  and  her 
authoritative  measures  with  an  individual  pupil. 
The  best  way  of  regarding  it  is  to  claim  not 
that  the  teacher  has  exhausted  her  skill,  but  that 
she  has  expended  all  of  it  that  any  one  pupil  is 


362     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

entitled  to.1    The  well-behaved  pupils  of  the  class 
have  a  superior  right  to  her  time  and  attention. 

Principal  as  counselor.  The  teacher  ought  to 
be  made  to  feel  free  to  seek  the  counsel  of  the  prin- 
cipal in  an  informal  way  at  any  reasonable  time. 
The  principal  ought  to  advise  with  her  in  regard  to 
a  disturbing  discipline  case,  sometimes  in  the  class- 
room directly,  sometimes  in  office  conference.2    He 

1  "Each  teacher  shall  be  held  responsible  for  the  order  and 
discipline  of  his  own  room,  practicing  such  discipline  as  would  be 
expected  of  a  kind,  firm,  and  judicious  parent  in  his  family. 
Teachers  shall  avoid  corporal  punishment  when  good  discipline 
can  be  preserved  by  milder  means."  —  Indianapolis,  XIX,  10. 

2  The  following  analysis  slip  is  used  in  a  Brooklyn  school : 

The  Glenwood  School 

Pupil Class 

Teacher Date 

Needing  Reformation 

1.  Late. . .  .times,  since. . . . 

2.  Absent days,  since 

3.  Does  not  seem  to  care 

4.  Disobedient :  refusal ;  neglect 

5.  Argumentative 

6.  Impudent 

7.  When  corrected,  smiles 

8.  Lies ,  cheats ,  steals 

9.  Has  the  habit  of 

10.  Lacks  "class  honor"  feeling 

11.  Acts  in  a  silly  manner 

12.  Interrupts  by 

13.  Does  little  or  no  work 

14.  Inattentive 

15.  Fusses  with  things. 

16.  Annoys,  pushes,  trips,  strikes 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         363 

will  seek  to  have  her  rather  develop  her  own  disci- 
plinary art  than  to  depend  on  him  for  set  rules. 

Such  conferences  ought  to  be  regarded  as  quite 
distinctive  from  formal  appeals  from  teacher  to 
principal  for  the  exercise  of  authority.  The  fact 
that  a  teacher  solicits  the  professional  counsel  of 
the  principal,  provided  she  uses  ordinary  common 
sense,  ought  not  to  be  held  by  the  principal  as 
an  indication  of  disciplinary  weakness.  On  the 
contrary  it  signifies  a  professional  ability  that  is 
lacking  both  in  the  teacher  who  gives  no  special 
thought  to  her  disciplinary  problems  but  hastily 
"  sends  to  the  office  "  all  troublesome  cases,  and 
in  ~the  teacher  who  has  good  surface  control  of 
class  but  gains  it  by  passing  over  the  real  problems. 

The  discipline  "  case."  When  the  teacher  has 
exhausted  the  resources  upon  which  she  should 
reasonably  draw  in  the  discipline  of  a  pupil,  she 
should  refer  the  case  formally,  officially,  legally, 
to  the  higher  disciplinary  authority,  the  principal. 

17.  Hinders  the  class  work 

18.  Talks ;  talks  out 

19.  Throws  things 

20.  Makes  noises ,  hums 

21.  Chews  gum  in  class 

22.  Marks  books ;    cuts  desks 

23.  Sulks ;  procrastinates 

24.  Cuts  recitations ;  truant 


364     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

She  should  not  send  the  pupil  from  the  room 
with  the  peremptory  order  "Go  to  the  principal." 
Time  spent  in  writing  a  formal  complaint  is  com- 
pensated for  by  the  added  dignity  and  seriousness  l 
which  the  complaint  assumes,  and  by  the  evidence 
thus  given  to  the  accused  pupil  and  all  the  others  that 
the  teacher  acts  only  in  a  calm  and  judicial  manner. 

For  the  adoption  of  a  formal  system,  the  following 
suggestions  are  offered : 
A  card  of  some  such  arrangement  as  this  — 

DISCIPLINE 


Case  Settled 


Date 


By. 


Public  School  No.  100 
Room  No Date iq. 


Name._ 
Reason. 


.Teacher 


(  No  pupil  reported  should  be  permitted  to  return  without  credential 
from  the  office.) 

1  Psychological  "vividness,"  one  of  the  factors  of  recall,  is  thus 
employed.  Cf.  Bagley,  Educative  Process,  p.  171 :  "If  the  child 
is  to  be  corrected  for  a  serious  fault,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the 
experience  of  correction  as  vivid  as  possible  in  order  absolutely  to 
insure  an  inhibitory  effect  in  the  future." 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         365 

—  should  have  entered  on  it  all  the  necessary  informa- 
tion as  to  the  items  indicated.  The  complaint  should  be 
specific.  General  charges,  while  they  may  be  understood 
by  the  principal,  are  not  readily  handled.  The  principal 
realizes  that  a  boy  whose  misconduct  takes  the  form  of 
petty  disorders  and  sly  meannesses  is  more  of  a  problem 
for  the  teacher  than  one  who  deliberately  assaults  an- 
other or  willfully  breaks  a  pane  of  glass ;  but  this  is  not  so 
well  understood  by  the  layman,  particularly  by  the  parent 
or  by  the  board  of  education  committee  before  whom  the 
case  may  ultimately  come  upon  an  appeal.  Hence  the 
principal  cannot  accept  a  charge  of  "  general  disorder  " 
because  that  is  too  indefinite;  nor  of  " talking.' '  because 
that  is  usually  regarded  lightly  by  laymen ;  nor  of  "in- 
attention "  because  that  is  a  psychological  matter  and 
chargeable  to  the  teacher  and  her  method.  But  "  will- 
ful disobedience,"  " impudence/ '  "insolence,"  are  recog- 
nizable offenses.  It  is  better  to  make  even  these  more 
specific,  and  to  frame  charges  thus  :  "  I  told  him  to  change 
his  seat  and  he  refused  to  do  so."  "He  told  me  'I  will 
not'  when  I  ordered  him  to  pass  to  the  line."  "Mali- 
ciously kicked  William  during  a  recitation." 

The  cases  of  general  disorder  can  usually  be  reached 
by  reducing  them  to  their  lowest  common  denominator, 
namely,  a  specific  instance  of  willful  disobedience. 

A  pupil  thus  reported  should  not  under  any  circum- 
stances be  permitted  to  return  to  his  room  without  au- 
thority from  the  principal.  He  is  not  to  return  with  a 
statement  that  "the  principal  is  not  in  his  office,"  or  even 


366     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

to  get  his  hat  or  his  books  —  these  can  be  sent  to  the  prin- 
cipal by  the  teacher  or  sent  for  by  the  principal.  Once 
formally  reported,  the  pupil  must  feel  that  he  has  taken 
himself  out  of  the  class  society,  to  which  only  a  satis- 
factory settlement  can  restore  him. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  say  that  when  a  pupil 
has  been  reported  to  the  principal,  he  must  receive 
no  consideration,  pending  the  settlement  of  his  case, 
which  tends  to  make  his  isolation  in  any  way  agree- 
able or  interesting :  he  must  not  be  sent  on  errands 
because  he  is  handy ;  he  must  not  even  be  a  witness 
of  the  routine  work  of  the  office,  for  this  may  have  a 
passing  interest ;  he  must  be  kept,  so  far  as  may  be, 
alone  with  his  thoughts. 

Frequently  the  principal  may  consider  the  case 
one  which  the  teacher  could  have  handled ;  when  so, 
he  may  place  his  own  ideas  before  her  and  ask  if  she 
still  wishes  the  formal  complaint  to  stand.  If  she 
does,  the  principal  will  take  her  at  her  word  and 
continue  the  case ;  on  the  contrary,  if  she  sees  that 
she  might  have  drawn  further  on  her  own  resources, 
she  may  make  an  excuse  for  hunting  up  the  pupil 
and  securing  from  him  some  satisfactory  assurance 
of  his  good  intentions.  She  may  then  on  behalf 
of  the  pupil  ask  the  principal  to  cancel  the  formal 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         367 

charge,  thus  perhaps  winning  over  the  pupil  by  her 
intercession  for  him. 

Disposition  of  case.  By  observing  certain  rules 
the  principal  may  dispose  of  disciplinary  cases 
promptly,  unhesitatingly,  and  yet  satisfactorily 
and  with  due  regard  to  the  individuality  of  the 
pupil. 

(1)  He  must  maintain  a  judicial  attitude  and 
temper  throughout.  He  must  avoid  the  personal 
element  and  keep  the  issue  to  the  point,  namely, 
that  the  pupil  has  violated  the  law. 

(2)  He  must  bear  in  mind  the  progressive  char- 
acter of  proper  discipline,  varying  with  the  age 
and  understanding  of  the  pupil. 

(3)  His  treatment  must  be  proportioned  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  offense,  the  spirit  in  which  it  was 
committed,  and  the  past  record  and  personal  equa- 
tion of  the  offender. 

(4)  He  must  state  the  complaint  to  the  pupil  and 
hear  his  defense. 

(5)  If  possible  he  must  lead  the  pupil  to  convict 
himself. 

(6)  He  must  remember  that  reformation,  correc- 
tion, settlement,  and  not  revenge,  are  sought; 
punishment  is  to  be  applied  only  if  necessary. 


368     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

"A  public  punishment  is  fearfully  unequal  in  its  inci- 
dence :  one  boy  feels  the  publicity  so  much  more  than 
another;  moreover,  it  either  hardens  the  offender  and 
destroys  his  self-respect,  or  else,  if  he  takes  it  gamely, 
it  makes  him  a  hero ;  as  for  the  onlookers  it  makes  them 
insufferably  self-righteous."  * 

(7)  He  must  endeavor  to  get  the  desired  result 
by  working  with  the  pupil  alone.  The  older  the 
pupil  the  more  effective  the  appeal  to  his  sense  of 
manhood,  his  sense  of  right,  the  "  square  deal,"  etc. 

(8)  When  the  pupil  admits  his  error,  at  least  on 
his  first  offense,  it  remains  only  for  him  to  give 
some  tangible  evidence  of  his  contrition  and  his 
intention  to  do  right  in  the  future.  This  he  may  do 
in  a  variety  of  ways,  for  instance : 

(a)  If  he  has  damaged  property  he  may  repair  or  re- 
place it. 

(b)  If  he  has  taken  time  from  his  class  which  did  not 
belong  to  him,  he  may  forfeit  his  own  time. 

(c)  If  he  has  committed  an  offense  against  the  class,  he 
may  apologize  to  them ;  or  if  against  his  teacher,  to  her. 

If  it  is  a  class  matter,  his  reinstatement  might 
depend  upon  a  favorable  vote  of  the  class.  If  a 
teacher  matter,  he  may  be  given  the  privilege  of 
writing  a  letter  of  apology  and  of  assurance  as  to  his 

1  J.  L.  Paton,  Educational  Foundations,  vol.  XVIII,  p.  529. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         369 

future  conduct,  which  the  principal  may  send  to  the 
teacher  for  her  consideration. 

If  a  boy  H  dodges  "  the  issue  and  is  inclined  to 
charge  his  own  misconduct  to  "  the  other  boys,"  he 
may,  very  logically,  be  transferred  to  a  girls'  class 
where  there  are  no  boys  to  disturb  him. 

When  he  is  returned  to  his  class,  he  may  be  rein- 
stated on  probation. 

i9-- 

M 

In  view  of  's  desire  for  a  trial  in  his 

class,  I  reinstate  him  on  PROBATION.  Please  send  him 
to  me  daily  at M.  with  a  report  as  to  his  conduct : 


Day  No. 


Day  of  Week 


Conduct 


Teacher 


Noted 


(9)  Under  certain  conditions  a  principal  will 
report  a  discipline  case  to  the  pupil's  parents: 
(a)  if  it  is  a  repeated  offense  by  a  pupil  too  young 
to  reason  clearly  in  the  premises;  (&)  if  it  is  an 
offense  by  a  pupil  old  enough  to  reason,  who  refuses 


2  B 


370     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

to  carry  the  reasoning  to  its  logical  conclusion ;  (c)  if 

the  offense  points  to  physical  defect  as  its  cause. 

The   chief   reasons   for   referring   to   the  parent 

are  to  secure  cooperation  x  of  parent  and  teacher,  or 

to  insure  adequate  punishment  of  the  pupil.     The 

principal  may  take  the  position  of  assuming  that  the 

parent  desires  his  child  to  do  right  and  to  respect 

laws  and  rules.    He  may  point  out,  when  punishment 

is  required,  that  the  parent  has  greater  resources 

at  his  command  than  has  the  school,  and  that  the 

parent  may  use  whatever  form  of  punishment  seems 

best  fitted.    If  the  child  in  question  were  the  only 

pupil  the  teacher  had,  —  the  principal  may  explain 

to  the  parent,  —  then  it  would  be  an  easy  matter 

for  her  to  handle  the  case  without  appeal  to  the 

parent.    As  she  has  a  constant  duty  to  some  forty 

1  So  stated  in  the  rules  in  some  cities,  for  example,  St.  Louis : 
"For  the  purpose  of  securing  the  cooperation  of  parents  or  guar- 
dians, any  pupil  may  be  sent  home  from  school  by  the  Principal ; 
provided,  however,  that  such  temporary  suspension  shall  not 
extend  over  a  longer  period  than  two  days.  A  written  notice  must 
be  sent  to  the  parent  or  guardian  in  each  case,  stating  the  cause  of 
such  temporary  suspension.  If  the  pupil  has  not  been  reinstated 
at  the  expiration  of  two  days,  a  regular  suspension  notice  shall  be 
sent  to  the  parent  and  the  Superintendent.  The  Principal  shall 
keep  a  list  of  temporary  suspensions,  together  with  the  date  of  each* 
and  report  the  same  to  the  Superintendent  at  the  close  of  the 
quarter."  —  49,  Sec.  7. 


THE  PUPILS*  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT          371 

or  fifty  other  pupils,  it  must  be  clear  that  in  justice 
to  them  she  should  not  be  required  to  devote  an 
unreasonable  amount  of  time  to  his  child.  On  this 
basis  the  parent  may  be  required  to  deal  with  his 
child  in  such  manner  as  shall  guarantee  the  pro- 
priety of  his  reinstatement  to  his  class. 

In  referring  to  the  parent,  the  principal  must 
be  "  sure  of  his  case."  He  must  have  a  sound 
case  in  order  to  guard  against  a  just  appeal  from  his 
decisions  by  the  parent  —  a  case  so  clear  that,  if 
the  parent  does  appeal  it,  the  principal  and  the 
school  are  sure  to  be  upheld  and  vindicated. 

The  following  form  is  suggested  for  the  reference  of 
a  case  to  the  parent : 

Public  School  No.  100, 

Broadway  and  Fulton  St., 
New  York,  19. .. 


M 


Dear : 

I  regret  I  must  inform  you  of 's  misconduct 

in  school.     . .  e  has  been  reported  to  me  by  M 

for 

I  have  been  obliged  therefore  to  withdraw  h. .  from  h. . 
class  until  you  call  in  regard  to  h . .  reinstatement. 
Respectfully, 


Principal. 


372  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

This  is  not  a  suspension  of  the  pupil,  for  he  is  kept  in 
the  school  awaiting  the  parent's  attention.  Of  course, 
in  most  cities,  the  attendance  of  the  parent  cannot  legally 
be  demanded  by  the  principal,  so  that  the  principal 
should  never  use  a  note  of  this  form  unless  he  is  ready 
to  follow  it  up,  if  the  parent  fails  to  respond,  with  formal 
suspension  of  the  pupil  in  accordance  with  law.1 

Corporal  punishment.  If  corporal  punishment 
is  permitted,  as  it  is  in  many  cities,  the  principal 

1  Philadelphia  furnishes  principals  with  two  Request  for  Inter- 
view forms : 

First  Request 

School,  District  No 191. . . 

Mr 

Dear  Sir  : 

We  regret  to  state  that  circumstances  have  arisen  which 

render   it    inadvisable    to    permit to    return 

to  school  until,  with  your  cooperation,  satisfactory  arrangements 
for  the  future  have  been  made.  We  earnestly  request  you,  there- 
fore, to  call  at  the  school  not  later  than  4  p.m.  on 

in  order  that  we  may  agree  upon  the  best  course  to  pursue.    We 

wish  to  readmit as  soon  as  possible. 

Yours  respectfully, 

Principal. 

The  body  of  the  Second  Request  reads : 

We  regret  that  you  have  not  called  in  response  to  our  note  of 

recent  date,  which  requested  an  interview  concerning 

Principals  are  required  to  refer  to  the  District  Superintendent  for 
settlement,  cases  of  this  kind  which  are  not  adjusted  promptly. 
Believing  that,  with  your  cooperation,  the  matter  can  be  satis- 
factorily adjusted  in  the  school,  we  would  urge  you  to  call  at  once. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         373 

must  exercise  considerable  discretion  in  its  admin- 
istration. 

a.  He  should  reserve  this  form  of  punishment  for  a 
general  emergency,  or  as  a  "last  resort  "  in  the  case 
of  an  individual  offender.  Almost  without  exception, 
the  adolescent  pupil  should  never  be  so  punished.1 

b.  He  should  always  have  witnesses  to  the  pun- 
ishment. It  is  a  decided  advantage  to  have  the 
teacher-complainant  present. 

c.  It  is  well  to  have  the  written  authority  — 
or  better,  request  —  of  the  parent.  In  some  cities 
this  is  required  by  the  rules. 

When  the  parent  protests  against  concerning  himself 
with  his  child's  behavior,  and  intimates  that  they  did 
things  better  when  he  went  to  school,  meaning  that  the 
switch  was  more  in  evidence,  the  principal  may  slip  for- 
ward the  following  form  for  him  to  sign : 

I9-- 

To  the  Principal, 

Public  School  No.  100, 
Dear  Sir: 

In  view  of  the  repeated  misconduct  of  my  son, , 

I  hereby  request  you  to  apply  such  corporal  punishment 
in  his  case  as  in  your  judgment  may  seem  advisable. 
Respectfully, 
(Signed) 

1  Providence:  "No  pupil  above  the  primary  grades  shall  be 
liable  to  corporal  punishment."  —  XIV,  1. 


374     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

By  refusing  to  sign,  he  convicts  himself  of  not  having 
meant  what  he  said ;  by  signing,  he  minimizes  the  effect 
of  any  protest  he  may  make  subsequent  to  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  requested  punishment. 

Most  cities  require  a  report  on  number  of  cases  of 
corporal  punishment.  Several  provide  forms  to  be  filed 
for  each  case.    The  Spokane  form  is : 

Corporal  Punishment  Report, 
Spokane  Public  Schools, 

Building, 

iQi-. 

Corporal  punishment  has  been  administered  to 

to-day  by 

in  the  presence  of 

On  account  of 

Instrument  of  punishment  was 

Result 

Teacher. 

Principal. 

The  Seattle  report  calls  for  certain  other  items : 

1.  For  what  offense  was  the  pupil  punished? 

2.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  pupil  ? 

3.  What  other  means  did  you  employ  before  resorting 
to  corporal  punishment  ? 

4.  What  do  you  know  of  the  home  influences  ? 

5.  Were  the  parents  notified  of  the  bad  conduct  before 
you  resorted  to  corporal  punishment  ? 

6.  Has  the  pupil  ever  been  referred  to  the  principal  or 
the  Superintendent  ? 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         375 

It  also  adds :  "This  blank  is  to  be  filled  in  and  mailed, 
without  delay,  to  the  City  Superintendent  by  the 
Teacher  or  Principal  inflicting  the  punishment." 

A  "warning  notice"  is  used,  informing  the  parent 
"Personal  appeals  and  mild  means  have  been  used  but 
without  effect,  and  we  now  request  your  attention  to' the 
matter  in  the  hope  that  your  influence  may  prevent 
more  serious  trouble.  Should  it  become  necessary  to 
resort  to  extreme  measures,  corporal  punishment  may  be 
inflicted  or  the  pupil  denied  permission  to  continue  in 
school.  Will  you  please  communicate  with  us  so  that, 
should  such  emergency  arise,  we  may  have  had  the 
benefit  of  your  counsel. 

"  Hoping  for  your  aid  and  cooperation,  we  are  —  " 

If  corporal  punishment  is  prohibited  by  statute 
or  by  rule,  the  principal  may,  when  a  parent  wants 
the  principal  or  teacher  to  whip  his  child,  show  him 
that,  as  the  school  cannot  do  it  and  he  can,  it  is 
clearly  a  matter  for  him  to  attend  to. 

No  discussion  of  the  merits  of  the  corporal  punish- 
ment question  is  undertaken  because :  (1)  for  principals 
in  a  large  number  of  cities  it  is  an  academic  question; 
(2)  it  has  already  been  amply  and  ably  treated  in  peda- 
gogic literature;  and  (3)  we  are  dealing  with  the  ad- 
ministrative phase  of  school  problems.  However,  the 
following  general  propositions  are  submitted. 

1.  The  great  majority  of  teachers  and  principals  who 


376     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

deal  with  boys,  those  who  are  closest  to  the  problems  of 
the  school  and  who  are  held  most  directly  responsible 
for  the  education  of  the  pupils,  doubt  the  wisdom  of  ab- 
solutely prohibiting  corporal  punishment.  This  does  not 
prove  that  they  are  heartless  or  cruel  or  unthinking  or 
unfit. 

2.  Those  who  believe  in  prohibiting  corporal  punish- 
ment are  generally  educational  theorists  or  else  educators 
who  are  not  directly  concerned  with  or  responsible  for 
the  discipline  of  boys.  This  does  not  prove  that  they 
are  insincere  or  unthinking  or  unfit. 

3.  The  theorists,  appealing  to  popular  prejudice,  and 
succeeding  in  having  corporal  punishment  legally  pro- 
hibited in  places,  have  not  demonstrated  that  there  has 
been  a  gain  in  the  moral  development  of  pupils.  The 
practicalists,  who  have  the  technical  insight  and  experi- 
ence, but  not  the  popular  side  of  the  question,  can  readily 
demonstrate  that  in  most  cities  the  education  of  hundreds 
of  pupils  is  thereby  seriously  hampered. 

4.  The  opposition  of  the  two  forces,  the  theorists  and 
the  practicalists,  must  eventually  result  either  in  the 
defeat  of  the  theorists  or  in  the  discovery  of  some  more 
satisfactory  substitute  for  corporal  punishment  than  any 
that  has  yet  been  advanced.  Pupils  must  be  trained  to 
respect  law.  Law  must  have  a  sanction.  The  sanctions 
thus  far  offered  as  substitutes  for  corporal  punishment 
seem  inadequate.  If  adequate  sanctions  can  be  found, 
every  practical  school  man  will  rejoice  as  sincerely  as 
the  most  enthusiastic  reformer. 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         377 

Suspension.  The  principal  must  not  hesitate  to 
use  his  power  to  suspend  a  pupil  when  the  case 
reaches  that  stage.  If  the  parent  proves  weak,  or 
indifferent,  or  obstructing,  and  fails  to  cooperate 
with  success,  if  there  is  no  parent  or  competent 
guardian,  or  if  it  is  a  case  of  emergency  that  brooks 
no  delay  and  demands  drastic  or  dramatic  atten- 
tion, the  principal  must  suspend.  He  should 
make  a  suspension  with  all  formality  and  make 
sure  that  pupil  and  parents  clearly  understand  the 
situation. 

Many  cities  use  forms  of  notices  to  parents. 

Detroit  on  its  notice  quotes  "  Extract  from  the  Rules 
of  the  Board  of  Education,' '  citing  the  provisions  apply- 
ing to  suspension.    The  form  concludes : 

This  is  to  notify  you  that has  vio- 
lated Rule  Section ,  by 


and  accordingly  has  been  suspended  from  the  privileges  of 
the  school. 

If  you  desire  to  have reinstated,  kindly  pre- 
sent this  notice  in  person  to  the  Superintendent  of  Schools 
at  his  office,  No.  50  Broadway,  between  3.30  p.m.  and  4.30 
p.m.  on  a  school  day. 


Principal School. 


378     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

Atlanta  adds  to  its  form  the  statement:  "When  .  .he 
returns,  . .  he  will  be  required  to  stand  a  satisfactory  ex- 
amination on  the  work  done  by  h.  . .  class  during  h.  . . 
absence,  otherwise  .  .he  will  not  be  allowed  to  reenter 
h. .  .  class." 

,  Systematic  records.  In  order  that  he  may  handle 
each  case  promptly,  speedily,  and  intelligently, 
the  principal  must  have  some  system  of  keeping  a 
record  of  his  discipline. 

A  card  system  with  a  five-by-eight  card  of  the  follow- 
ing form  is  convenient : 

DISCIPLINE 

Father's  Name Name , 

Address Date  of  Birth 

Business  Address. Date  of  Admission 


Date 

Room 

Teacher 

Complaint 

Disposition 

Date 
Settled 

The  mere  filling  out  of  this  card  in  the  presence  of  the 
pupil  and  in  response  to  his  answers  to  the  principal's 
questions  lends  an  impressive  dignity  and  seriousness 


THE  PUPILS'  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         379 

to  the  situation.  In  filling  in  for  Disposition,  the 
principal  may  use  a  simple  code  of  abbreviation :  p  5/18 
m  postal  sent  to  parent  on  May  18;  1  mm  5/19  =  note 
form  No.  1  sent  to  mother  by  mail  May  19 ;  f  c  5/20  = 
father  called  May  20 ;  pr  5/22  =  placed  in  class  on  pro- 
bation, May  22,  etc.  The  original  card  of  complaint 
by  the  teacher  is  attached  to  this  record  card  until  the 
case  is  settled.  Upon  settlement,  the  record  card  is 
filed  alphabetically,  with  all  correspondence,  probation 
sheets,  etc.,  attached  thereto.  If  the  same  pupil  comes 
before  the  principal  on  a  second  complaint,  reference  to 
this  card  immediately  recalls  to  the  principal  all  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  former  complaint  and  enables  him  to 
act  with  greater  intelligence  than  if  he  but  trusted  to  his 
memory. 

It  is  well,  too,  to  have  a  corresponding  record  of 
merit.  A  card  of  the  same  size,  but  of  distinguishing 
color,  might  be  kept  clipped  to  the  discipline  record. 
On  this  card  can  be  entered  all  items  of  special  com- 
mendation concerned  with  the  pupil,  to  be  taken 
into  consideration  when  he  becomes  a  disciplinary 
case. 

Pupil  self- government.  A  number  of  schools  have 
experimented  with  so-called  self-government  systems. 
These  schemes  sometimes  build  up  a  school  and 
class  government  organization  along  lines  parallel 


380     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

to  federal,  state,  and  municipal  government.  In 
other  cases,  a  more  simple  form  of  elected  class 
officers  and  school  officers  suffices  to  gain  the  same 
end  of  giving  pupils  a  voice  in  the  management  of 
the  school. 

A  concise  argument  for  the  general  proposition  of  pupil 
self-government  is  given  by  Superintendent  Maxwell : l 
"The  temptation  is  always  present  and  is  generally  over- 
whelming, for  the  child  culprit  who  suffers  punishment 
...  at  the  hands  of  an  autocratic  authority  such  as  the 
principal  or  the  teacher,  to  pose  as  a  hero  or  a  martyr. 
If,  however,  the  same  punishment  were  inflicted  by  a 
jury  of  his  peers,  the  consolation  of  strutting  as  a  hero 
or  posing  as  a  martyr  would  be  entirely  removed.  The  ef- 
ficacy of  the  punishment  would  be  reenforced  by  the  whole 
strength  of  the  public  opinion  of  the  class  or  the  school. 
The  ridicule  or  the  pity  of  his  fellows  is  what  the  child 
finds  it  hardest  to  endure  and  what  he  will  strive  most 
earnestly  to  avoid.  In  this  psychological  fact  lies  the 
chief  reason  for  the  success,  such  as  it  is,  that  has  at- 
tended the  different  forms  of  pupil  self-government  that 
have  been  tried  at  various  times  in  the  history  of  edu- 
cation. Add  to  this,  that  the  exercise  of  governmental 
powers  by  the  pupils  in  the  administration  of  a  school 
is  an  excellent  training  in  executive  ability  and  an  unsur- 
passed preparation  for  the  duties  of  citizenship,  and  an 

1  Annual  Report,  1905,  p.  121. 


THE   PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT         381 

exceedingly  strong  case  is  made  out  in  favor  of  pupil 
self-government."  1 

There  is  also  something  to  be  said  on  the  other  side  of 
the  subject.  There  is  danger  of  overdoing  any  system 
of  this  sort  to  the  extent  that  low  motives  of  desire  for 
"show"  are  being  employed.  Pupils  should  be  brought 
to  behave  themselves  without  any  "display"  of  good  be- 
havior. Reduced  to  its  lowest  terms,  any  plan  of  this 
kind  is  a  form  of  monitorial  supervision,  and  as  such 
shares  the  disadvantages  of  the  monitorial  system. 

There  is  a  particular  disadvantage  in  employing  moni- 
tors to  supervise  the  conduct  of  pupils  when  left  alone 
in  their  rooms  and  when  on  corridors  and  stairways. 
There  is  always  the  danger  of  accident  to  pupils  in  their 
school  life,  and  at  such  a  time  the  monitorial  system  is 
highly  unsatisfactory.  To  illustrate,  suppose  a  girl 
falls  down  stairs  at  a  dismissal  and  is  seriously  injured. 
Such  an  accident  is  likely  to  happen  under  whatever 
system  of  supervision  may  be  employed,  but  it  is  the 
school  which  is  held  responsible  by  the  parents.  The 
father  calls  at  the  school  to  investigate.  The  principal 
must  send  for  the  person  who  was  responsible  for  the 
supervision  of  the  pupils  as  they  were  dismissed.  Under 
a  pupil-government  system,  that  person  proves  to  be  a 
twelve-year-old  boy ;  and  the  principal  explains  to  the 
parent  that  the  pupils  were  "governing  themselves." 

1  A  more  extended  presentation,  together  with  bibliography, 
is  given  in  King,  Social  Aspects  of  Education,  in  Chapter  XVI, 
Democratic  Government  of  Schools. 


382      THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

Might  not  the  parent  reasonably  take  exception  to  the 
condition  ? *  Under  the  teacher-government  system  the 
person  who  appears  is  a  responsible  adult,  a  paid  em- 
ployee, a  person  in  a  position  of  authoritative  supervision. 
The  assurance  to  the  parent  that  the  accident  to  the  child 
was  unavoidable,  and  occurred  in  spite  of  the  most  care- 
ful supervision  by  legally  constituted  school  authorities, 
would  tend  to  allay  any  feeling  of  animosity  which  the 
father  brought  with  him. 

1  Louisville  settles  the  question  of  monitors  emphatically : 
"Pupils  shall  not  at  any  time  be  required  or  permitted  to  act  as 
monitors."  —  2. 

Worcester,  Mass.,  provides:  "No  monitor  shall  be  appointed 
to  act  in  any  capacity  in  any  school  building,  except  in  such  in- 
stances as  the  superintendent  may  in  the  exercise  of  his  judgment 
deem  desirable."  —  VTII,  19. 

"In  an  eighth  year  class  of  boys  in  a  New  York  City  school,  42 
out  of  46  voted  against  the  establishment  of  a  system  of  monitors. 
Some  of  the  reasons  are  here  quoted  in  their  pristine  but  forceful 
simplicity : 

"Boys  learn  to  be  more  trustworthy  without  them." 

"Boys  are  apt  to  behave  themselves  only  when  the  monitors 
are  there." 

"Monitor  might  have  a  grudge  against  some  boy,  etc.  .  .  ." 

"  Pupils  get  jealous  of  monitors.  .  .  ." 

"Boys  ought  to  learn  to  take  care  of  themselves." 

"Causes  ill-feeling  between  boys." 

"Monitor  can't  fight  a  big  boy,  and  if  he  reports  him  he  gets 
him  outside.  .  .  ." 

"Some  monitors  go  a  little  too  far  and  think  they  are  It.  .  .  ." 

"If  his  friends  do  anything,  he  doesn't  report  it.  .  .  ." 


THE   PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT  383 

There  is  also  the  administrative  phase  of  the  sub- 
ject. It  is  admitted  that  any  "  plan  "  needs  constant 
supervision  by  teachers  and  principal.  Hence  we 
must  estimate  the  entries  on  both  sides  of  the  energy 
account  and  figure  the  balance. 

The  teaching  of  civics,  at  least  as  much  as  the 
pupil  can  understand,  is  readily  accomplished  with- 
out the  aid  of  any  formal  pupil-government  schemes. 
The  classroom  discipline  does  not  need  reenforcement 
by  a  uniform  school  plan.  The  individual  teacher, 
if  competent,  will  have  good  order  without  recourse 
to  an  artificial  motive  of  this  kind,  or  if  she  wishes  to 
use  one  can  readily  initiate  and  administer  a  simple 
plan  of  her  own.  The  unsatisfactory  teacher,  if 
she  cannot  secure  classroom  order  without  a  super- 
imposed plan,  is  not  likely  to  get  it  with  such  a  plan. 

The  problem,  then,  from  the  administrative  point 
of  view,  would  seem  to  reduce  itself  to  this :  Any 
scheme  of  pupil  government  requires  the  expense  of  a 
large  amount  of  supervisory  energy  by  principal  and 
teachers ;  the  chief,  if  not  the  sole,  practical  income 
from  such  a  scheme  is  a  monitorial  supervision  of  the 
school  territory  outside  the  classroom ;  question  — 
Does  the  income  exceed  the  expense? 

The  deeper  criticism  of  pupil  government  schemes 


384     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

rests  on  the  question  as  to  what  constitutes  self- 
government.  We  must  all  believe  in  self-govern- 
ment. We  might  stretch  its  definition  so  that  it 
would  be  synonymous  with  education  itself.  For 
each  individual  to  learn  the  great  secret  of  self- 
government,  to  learn  to  control  himself  in  every 
direction,  is  the  great  aim  of  moral  education.  It 
is  a  question  whether  these  "  systems "  of  self- 
government  teach  ^//-government,  or  do  not,  rather, 
teach  each  pupil  to  govern  the  other  pupil.  To  learn 
to  obey  the  law  because  one  must,  perforce,  is  not  as 
high  an  ideal  as  to  learn  to  do  right  regardless  of 
statutory  requirements. 

Transferring  responsibility.  The  child  begins  his 
career  with  a  high  sense  of  his  rights  as  an  individual. 
As  he  matures  he  learns  that  individuality  must  in 
many  directions  be  submerged  for  the  social  good. 
Parents  and  teachers  in  training  young  children 
work  on  the  assumption  that  the  child  is  not  com- 
petent to  determine  completely  his  own  individual- 
ity. They  assume  a  vicarious  responsibility.  They 
hold  the  child's  responsibility  for  himself  in  trust 
for  him.  Every  time  they  command  and  compel 
him  to  act  contrary  to  his  own  view  of  his  own 
individuality  they  assume  a  tremendous  responsibil- 


THE  PUPILS'   MORAL  DEVELOPMENT  385 

ity.  If  they  sufficiently  realize  the  gravity  of  the 
trust  they  will  be  most  eager  to  transfer  their 
responsibility  to  its  rightful  possessor,  the  child, 
just  the  moment  he  can,  with  safety  to  himself  and 
society,  carry  it  himself. 

The  teacher  should  be  ever  watchful  for  oppor- 
tunities to  make  this  transfer.  She  will  progres- 
sively lead  each  pupil  in  her  class  to  shoulder  his 
own  responsibility  to  govern  himself  and  fit  himself 
properly  into  the  social  order.  She  will  not,  how- 
ever, move  too  rapidly ;  she  will  never  let  the  pupil 
fall  back  into  anarchy  because  neither  he  nor  any 
one  else  is  governing  him.  Every  school  activity 
may  be  made  to  contribute  to  the  rapid  democrati- 
zation of  the  pupil.  This  being  so,  it  seems  wasteful 
to  introduce  an  artificial,  non-essential  "  scheme  " 
in  the  attempt  to  bring  about  the  same  ideal. 

Summary.  The  problem  of  discipline  is,  perhaps, 
the  most  serious  and  perplexing  one  the  principal 
faces.  To  handle  it  successfully  he  must  ground 
himself  with  certain  general  principles  and  then 
apply  these  in  specific  methods.  He  must  have  a 
serviceable  philosophy  of  moral  training  and  under- 
stand his  legal  function  as  disciplinary  authority. 
He  must  train  his  teachers  as  disciplinarians,  de- 

2  c 


386     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

veloping  their  personalities,  advising  and  caution- 
ing them,  and  giving  them  specific  aids.  He  must 
himself  be  the  chief  disciplinary  force  in  the  school, 
maintaining  a  helpful  school  spirit,  taking  pre- 
cautionary and  preventive  measures  against  mis- 
conduct, and,  when  necessary,  exercising  to  the  full 
his  legal  authority  as  disciplinarian. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE   PRINCIPAL   AND   THE   PRINCIPAL  SHIP 

It  remains  only  to  consider  the  principal  himself 
and  his  personal  relation  to  his  office.  This  will  be 
done  under  four  heads:  (i)  the  principal's  quali- 
fications for  the  office;  (2)  his  adjustment  to  his 
position ;  (3)  his  personal  growth ;  (4)  the  position 
itself. 

1.  The  principal's  qualifications  for  the  office. 
The  qualifications  to  be  sought  in  a  principal,  as 
derived  from  returns  to  a  questionnaire,  are  sum- 
marized as  follows : 1 

"  1.  He  should  be  able  to  direct  and  supervise 
the  detail  of  teaching  procedure. 

2.  He  should  be  able  to  organize  and  maintain  a 
good  school. 

3.  He  should  have  an  intelligent  understanding 

of  the  school  system  of  which  his  school  is  a  part, 

and  of  its  peculiar  service  to  the  local  community, 

1  Article  by  Percy  E.  Davidson  in  Educational  Administration 
and  Supervision,  April,  1 9 1 8 . 

387 


388     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

and  should  have  a  sense  of  responsibility  to  it  as  an 
official  member. 

4.  He  should  be  able  to  understand  the  economic, 
political,  religious,  and  general  social  character  of  his 
community,  and  to  determine  its  educational  needs 
in  consequence. 

5.  He  should  be  able  to  appraise  the  community 
and  its  institutions  with  reference  to  ideal  standards 
of  American  life. 

6.  He  should  have  the  personal  qualities  of  a 
leader  in  order  that  he  may  be  a  potent  influence  in 
the  community." 

We  shall  consider  in  detail  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant necessary  qualifications  of  the  principal. 

Classroom  experience.  Every  principal  should 
have  had  actual  experience  as  a  class  teacher  —  this 
is  imperative.  However  scholarly,  however  sincere 
and  earnest,  the  principal  who  has  never  held  the 
position  of  class  teacher  cannot  put  himself  in  the 
teacher's  place.  He  may  delude  himself  into  think- 
ing that  by  his  sporadic  visits  to  the  classroom,  or 
even  by  "  taking  a  class  "  for  a  long  period,  he  is 
getting  the  viewpoint  of  the  teacher  but  he  is  not. 
Without  this  viewpoint  he  lacks  the  basis  for  sym- 
pathetic and  effective  supervision. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    389 

Teaching  ability.  Moreover,  the  principal  must 
be  an  excellent  teacher.  On  the  whole,  he  should 
be  as  capable  a  teacher  as  the  best  on  his  staff. 
This  does  not  imply  that  he  is  the  best  teacher  of 
every  subject  in  every  grade.  The  leader  of  the 
orchestra  understands  the  playing  of  every  instru- 
ment and  can  probably  play  one  or  two  instruments 
better  than  any  member  of  his  corps.  But  he  is  not 
expected  to  be  a  virtuoso  in  the  playing  of  every 
instrument.  So,  too  the  principal  ought  to  be 
particularly  expert  in  teaching  some  subjects  in 
some  grades,  but  it  is  natural  that  there  should  be 
several  teachers  who  have  developed  superior  skill 
in  teaching  certain  other  subjects  and  other  grades. 

Executive  ability.  The  principal  must  have  teach- 
ing ability  plus  executive  ability.  Those  teachers 
who  demonstrate  organizing  and  administrative 
aptitude  should  seek  promotion  along  the  lines  lead- 
ing to  the  executive  positions.  But  teachers  who 
lack  this  aptitude  should  not  make  the  mistake 
of  attempting  administrative  work.  They  should 
direct  their  efforts  to  preparing  themselves  for  the 
teaching  positions  of  the  higher  ranks,  for  the  sake 
of  their  own  happiness  and  the  strength  of  the  school 
system. 


390     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

Executive  ability  has  its  intrinsic  advantages, 
as  we  shall  note,  but  there  is,  in  addition,  an  inci- 
dental gain  made  by  a  principal  who  is  a  good 
executive.  The  average  citizen  has  little  upon 
which  to  base  his  judgment  of  the  principal,  whom 
he  meets  only  on  rare  occasions.  He  has  few  op- 
portunities to  estimate  the  principal's  professional 
ability.  He  is,  however,  impressed  with  the  fact, 
from  his  occasional  dealings  with  the  principal,  either 
that  he  is  a  good  "  business  "  man  or  that  he  is  a 
poor  one.  The  impression  thus  gained  is  apt  to 
be  carried  over  by  the  citizen  when  he  forms  his 
judgment  of  the  principal  as  a  schoolmaster. 

Executive  ability  for  the  principal  consists  not 
alone  of  the  generic  ability  which  applies  equally 
to  the  command  of  a  regiment  and  to  the  superin- 
tendency  of  a  factory.  In  addition,  the  principal 
must  possess  the  specific  ability  to  adapt  general 
principles  to  the  administration  of  a  school.  The 
executive  in  any  office  should  possess  (a)  good 
working  habits,  (b)  a,  grasp  of  detail,  (c)  a  sense 
of  proportion,  (d)  system,  (e)  certain  personal  vir- 
tues. These  will  be  considered  in  order,  and  in  their 
special  application  to  the  work  of  the  principal. 

a.    Good  working   habits.     The   executive   must 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE   PRINCIPALSHIP    391 

develop  such  habits  as  will  dispose  of  his  work  in  an 
orderly  and  regular  manner.  Chief  among  these 
habits  are  promptness,  speed,  and  accuracy.  Work 
must  be  done  promptly  because  procrastination  is 
the  thief  of  time.1  Work  must  be  done  rapidly  in 
order  that  it  may  be  adequate  in  amount.  Work 
must  be  done  accurately  that  it  may  not  have  to 
be  done  over  again. 

The  work  of  a  hat  factory  is  tangible  and  definite ; 
the  aim  is  to  turn  out  in  a  given  time  a  maximum 
number  of  hats  at  a  minimum  expense.  The  work 
of  a  school  is  tangible  only  in  part ;  the  aim  is  not, 
as  many  would  have  us  believe,  to  turn  out  so  many 
pupils  in  a  given  time  at  a  minimum  expense.  It 
is  rather,  in  a  given  time,  to  render  to  pupils  a 
maximum  service,  at  a  proper  expense.  The  ele- 
ment of  time  enters  into  the  calculations  of  both 
factory  and  school.  In  either  case  it  is  a  constant 
and  measurable  factor.  But  beyond  this  there  is 
a  decided  difference  between  the  two  problems: 
hats  may  be  counted  and  the  ratio  of  hats  to  min- 
utes determined;    but  education  and  minutes  are 

1  Many  cities  refer  specifically  and  effectively  to  promptness. 
Some  of  them  provide  a  penalty  of  a  cash  forfeit  or  deferred  pay- 
ment of  salary  for  laxness  in  submitting  reports. 


392  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

incommensurable.  That  is  to  say,  the  hat  maker, 
working  with  increased  rapidity  and  accuracy, 
computes  his  gain  in  hats ;  the  principal,  improving 
his  habits  of  speed  and  accuracy,  makes  gains 
uncounted  and  unaccountable.  There  is  a  limit 
to  the  profit  in  the  things  called  hats;  there  is  no 
limit  to  the  profit  in  the  things  of  the  spirit.  The 
principal,  therefore,  among  all  executives,  has  the 
highest  of  motives  impelling  him  to  put  forth  effort 
in  perfecting  his  working  habits.  To  the  develop- 
ment of  his  own  habits  he  applies  the  same  psychol- 
ogy as  he  uses  with  pupils  in  the  mechanizing  of 
their  habits. 

b.  A  grasp  of  detail.  The  principal  must  have 
a  good  memory,  together  with  a  well-developed 
ability  to  forget.  He  must  note,  and  recall  when 
necessary,  the  whole  gamut  of  minor  matters,  which, 
combined,  constitute  the  life  of  his  school.  It  is 
equally  important,  however,  that  these  details 
should  not  depress  him,  or  even  impress  him  except 
in  his  marginal  consciousness.  So  far  as  it  is  possible 
for  him  to  do  so,  he  will  give  over  direct  supervision 
of  many  details  to  subordinates.  In  such  cases  he 
will  continue  to  exercise  a  certain  oversight  but  it 
will  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  reenforce  the  work  of 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE   PRINCIPALSHIP    393 

his  assistants  and  not  hamper  them  by  petty  inter- 
ference. 

c.  A  sense  of  proportion.  An  elaboration  of  this 
theme  might  well  lead  us  into  the  exploitation  of  a 
philosophy  of  life.  A  lack  of  a  sense  of  proportion, 
whereby  one  attempts  to  repair  a  watch  with  a 
crowbar  or  to  remove  a  mountain  with  an  orange 
spoon,  is  all  too  common  among  people  otherwise 
very  estimable.  It  is  a  trait  unfortunate  in  any 
walk  of  life  and  particularly  disastrous  in  an  execu- 
tive position.  The  principal  whose  chief  concern 
is  to  ring  electric  bells,  carry  messages  from  room 
to  room,  or  file  reports  that  are  models  of  the  en- 
grosser's art,  may  be  sincere,  industrious,  and,  in 
a  way,  successful ;  but  he  certainly  is  inefficient  in 
any  true  estimate  of  intelligent  supervision. 

In  the  large,  two  converse  principles  should  con- 
trol the  principal's  administration :  (1)  never  to 
do,  himself,  what  some  one  else  can  do  just  as  well 
as  he,  and  (2)  to  concern  himself  mainly  with 
those  things  which  he  alone  can  do,  or  which  he 
can  do  better  than  others.  He  must  do  the  im- 
portant things,  even  if  many  matters  intrinsically 
serious  but  relatively  unimportant  have  to  wait 
or  even  have  to  be  neglected  entirely.     If  there 


394     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

are  not  enough  important  things  which  he  alone 
is  fitted  to  do,  then  either  he  or  his  school  is  in 
a  sad  state.  The  practical  application  of  these  two 
principles  leads  immediately  to  a  consideration  of 
the  fourth  qualification. 

d.  System.  The  principal's  intention  to  do  things 
proportionately  can  gain  concrete  expression  only 
by  the  aid  of  systematic  management.  This  sub- 
ject has  already  been  referred  to  (p.  4),  and  has 
been  exemplified  at  many  points  throughout  the 
extended  discussion  of  technical  details.  In  saving 
himself  for  the  important  duties,  the  principal  will 
put  as  much  as  possible  of  his  routine  work  upon 
others.  If  a  twelve-year-old  girl  is  available  who 
can  push  electric-bell  buttons,  if  a  ten-year-old  boy 
can  carry  a  message  from  room  to  room,  if  a  teacher 
can  file  a  statistical  report,  it  is  wasteful  for  the 
principal  to  put  his  energies  into  these  directions. 
If  he  has  supervisory  or  clerical  assistants,  it  is 
comparatively  easy  for  him  to  get  relief  from  rou- 
tine. Without  such  assistants,  he  can  yet  secure 
relief  by  proving  to  his  teachers  that  he  can  help 
them  better  if  he  is  free  from  clerical  and  routine 
duties.  He  ought  to  be  able  to  show  any  teacher 
that  if  she  will  volunteer  to  act  as  his  clerical  assist- 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    395 

ant  for,  say,  an  hour  a  week  outside  her  regular 
time,  the  help  which  he  will  thus  be  free  to  give  her 
in  her  work  will  amply  repay  her. 

To  perform  the  mechanical  work  of  his  school 
the  principal  must  establish  as  perfect  a  machine  as 
possible,  not  because  he  admires  machinery  as  such, 
but  because  mechanization  makes  it  possible  for 
him  to  devote  himself  to  the  broader  phases  of  his 
work.  A  machine  is  not  always  easy  to  build,  but 
it  should  be  easy  to  run.  The  school  which  requires 
the  hand  of  the  principal  unceasingly  on  the  helm 
is  sailing  too  close  to  the  wind.  Occasional  absence 
of  the  principal  should  not  ripple  the  surface  of  the 
school  life. 

To  insure  a  stable  equilibrium  in  the  school 
organization  the  principal  must  understudy  himself 
and  his  associates.  On  occasion,  he  will  deliberately 
neglect  certain  duties  which  he  ordinarily  performs, 
making  sure  that  they  are  properly  attended  to  by 
some  one  else.  Then  when  the  principal  is  unex- 
pectedly off  duty,  the  work  of  the  school  proceeds 
automatically. 

The  principal  in  the  classroom.  Much  of  the 
time  which  the  principal  gains  by  systematic  han- 
dling of  routine  he  will  spend  in  the  classroom.     In 


396     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

fact,  many  school  systems  require  a  certain  amount 
of  teaching  from  the  principal.1  There  are  several 
reasons  why  he  should  get  into  the  classroom  and 
teach.  We  have  already  considered  three,  namely : 
(i)  to  evaluate  the  work  of  the  teacher;  (2)  to 
discover  the  bright  or  exceptional  pupils  whom  the 
teacher,  through  daily  familiarity,  is  less  apt  to 
note ;  (3)  to  give  a  "  model "  lesson.  There  are 
other  reasons : 

(4)  Class  teaching  enables  the  principal  to  main- 
tain his  technical  skill.  Without  continued  practice 
he  will  cease  to  be  an  excellent  teacher,  which  he 
should  be  to  the  end  of  his  career. 

(5)  It  helps  him  to  maintain  sympathetic  under- 
standing of  the  teacher  and  her  problems. 

(6)  It  helps  the  pupils  by  introducing  them  to 
variety,  and  in  some  cases,  superiority,  and  by 
increasing  the  feeling  of  personal  friendship  between 
principal  and  pupils. 

(7)  It  relieves  the  principal  from  the  monotony 

of  office  work.     In  the  first  months  in  the  supervisory 

position,  he  may  welcome  as  a  relief  the  change  from 

1  As,  for  example,  New  Haven :  "They  shall  regularly  give  such 
personal  instruction  in  the  prescribed  work  of  the  school  as  may 
be  required  by  the  Superintendent,  but  in  no  case  shall  a  principal 
teach  less  than  five  hours  a  week."  —  184. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    397 

classroom  experience.  As  he  continues  in  adminis- 
trative work,  however,  the  office  routine  becomes 
tedious.  It  will  be  actually  deadening  unless  offset 
by  constant  classroom  association  with  teachers  and 
pupils. 

e.  Certain  personal  traits.  The  principal  must 
possess  certain  attributes  which  depend  chiefly  upon 
innate  personality.  Yet  if  they  are  lacking  they  may 
be  acquired,  or  if  weakly  present,  may  be  materially 
strengthened.  To  begin  with,  the  principal  must 
possess  those  personal  characteristics  that  distin- 
guish the  excellent  teacher.  But  the  principal  has 
to  meet  situations  outside  the  range  of  the  teacher's 
work ;  he  must  solve  problems  which  she  does  not 
face  and  deal  with  people  to  an  extent  that  she  is 
not  called  upon  to  do.  Hence  the  principal  has  an 
even  greater  need  than  has  she  to  exercise  the  par- 
ticular virtues  of  courtesy  and  courage. 

Courtesy.  Courtesy,  for  the  principal,  must  in- 
clude that  true  kindness  which  relieves  official  acts 
of  the  terrors  of  officialism.  It  also  demands  the 
equable  temper  which  is  unbroken  by  the  severest 
strains,  so  that  the  principal's  attitude  toward 
pupils,  teachers,  and  others  shall  be  the  same  yester- 
day, to-day,  and  to-morrow.     This  attitude  is  at 


398     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

once  the  cause  and  the  effect  of  rational  patience 
and  true  sympathy. 

Courage.  Courage,  the  outward  expression  of  an 
innate  and  basic  integrity,  operating  positively 
through  firmness  and  negatively  through  reserve, 
is  a  virtue  constantly  drawn  upon  by  the  principal. 
The  principal's  position  is  not  usually  regarded  as 
one  requiring  anything  akin  to  militant  courage. 
Yet  many  times  daily  in  a  quiet  way  and  occasionally 
under  more  dramatic  circumstances  the  principal 
must  choose  between  easy  acquiescence  and  rigid 
determination.  It  is  easy  to  let  the  refractory  dis- 
cipline case  slip  along  undecided;  easy  to  refrain 
from  correcting  the  pathetic,  the  argumentative,  or 
the  political  teacher;  easy  to  let  the  school  board 
member  have  the  unwarranted  special  privilege 
he  demands.  It  requires  courage  to  take  prompt, 
decisive,  and  correct  action  in  these  matters. 

There  are  constantly  recurring  instances  when  the 
principal  must  choose  between  serving  his  school 
and  serving  his  personal  comfort  and  ambition. 
For  the  principal  to  use  his  school  in  such  a  way  as 
to  win  favor  with  the  "  powers  that  be  "  is  a  cheap 
but  too  often  effective  method  of  securing  official 
advancement.    For  the  principal  to  remember  first 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    399 

and  always  that  his  oath  of  office  is  to  his  pupils  is 
frequently  to  seal  before  him  the  doors  of  promotion. 
To  do  this  deliberately  calls  for  stalwart  courage.1 

2.  The  principal's  adjustment  to  his  position. 
The  principal  will  adjust  himself  to  his  principalship 
in  either  of  two  ways,  according  to  whether  he  is 
appointed  to  organize  a  new  school,  or  to  succeed  a 
competent  principal  in  the  management  of  an  already 
established  school.  In  the  one  case,  he  must  pursue 
a  policy  of  masterly  activity ;  in  the  other,  a  policy 
of  artistic  inactivity. 

Organizing  a  new  school.  To  organize  a  new 
school  demands  painstaking  planning  and  energetic 
execution.  As  much  as  possible  of  the  organizing 
must  be  done  before  the  pupils  appear  for  admission : 
the  selection  of  teachers,  their  assignment  to  grades 
and  rooms  and  to  duties  outside  the  classrooms,  the 

1  Los  Angeles  puts  itself  on  record,  in  its  Circular  of  Information, 
thus:  "All  promotions  as  well  as  appointments  shall  be  made 
upon  the  basis  of  merit  to  be  ascertained  by  length  and  character 
of  service  and  marked  fitness  for  the  work  to  be  done.  Education 
efficiency  demands  that  school  work  be  organized  upon  the  basis 
of  merit  alone,  and  the  employment  of  political,  personal  or  social 
influence  of  any  sort  to  secure  advancement  will  be  regarded  as 
unprofessional  and  forbidden." 

In  this  connection,  the  Code  of  Ethics  adopted  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi State  Teachers  Association,  191 7,  reprinted  in  Journal  of 
Education,  January  17,  1918,  is  of  interest. 


400     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A   CITY  SCHOOL 

delivery  of  supplies,  the  outlining  of  at  least  the  first 
few  weeks  of  work,  the  promulgation  of  a  few  well- 
considered  rules,  etc.  It  is  better  to  organize  along 
all  of  these  lines  tentatively,  even  if  many  changes 
have  to  be  made  later,  than  to  postpone  planning 
until  there  is  the  added  problem  of  actually  having 
the  pupils  on  hand.  The  principal  will  gain  the 
respect  and  confidence  of  his  teachers  through  his 
evident  command  of  the  many  difficulties  involved. 
Conscious  of  his  mastery  of  the  situation,  they  will 
follow  his  leadership  willingly  and  loyally.  His 
influence  with  the  pupils  will  soon  be  felt,  and  the 
entire  school  will  become  an  expression  of  his  thought 
and  his  ideals. 

Succeeding  another  principal.  Quite  different  is 
the  problem  of  the  principal  who  begins  his  work  in  a 
well-organized  school  as  the  successor  of  a  respected 
principal.  It  will  be  a  serious  and  far-reaching 
mistake  for  him  to  attempt  to  gain  control  by 
strenuous  remodeling  of  the  school  to  conform  with 
his  ideas.  Teachers  are  fearful  of  change;  if  they 
have  adjusted  themselves  to  the  methods,  expecta- 
tions, and  ideals  of  a  principal  whom  they  admire, 
they  will  react  resentfully  toward  a  rough  and 
sudden    overthrow    of    their    accustomed    routine. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    401 

Whether  or  not  the  new  regime  is  more  able  or 
more  just,  has  little  to  do  with  it ;  the  mere  fact  of 
ruthless  change  will  stir  the  teachers  to  a  contra- 
riety that  it  will  take  years  to  overcome.  Hence 
the  principal  must  proceed  cautiously.  Even  if  the 
school,  according  to  his  judgment,  has  been  woefully 
mismanaged  by  his  predecessor,  he  must  remember 
that  it  has  pulled  along  for  some  time  and  that  a 
few  weeks  more  can  make  no  great  difference. 

The  best  course  for  the  new  principal  to  follow  is 
to  spend  several  weeks  in  patient  but  keen  observa- 
tion of  conditions.  He  will  study  appreciatively 
the  good  points  of  the  organization,  administer 
details  as  nearly  as  possible  in  accord  with  the 
methods  of  his  predecessor,  and,  in  general,  try  to 
convince  the  teachers  that,  after  all,  he  is  harmless. 
One  after  another  of  them  will  come  to  view  him  as 
conservative,  will  note  his  ability  in  the  settlement 
of  daily  difficulties,  will  regard  him  as  thoroughly 
competent,  and  will  be  eager  to  follow  his  leadership. 
Only  when  the  teaching  staff,  in  the  main,  has 
attained  this  confidence  in  the  principal  can  he 
safely  begin  to  reconstruct  according  to  his  own  ideas. 
His  subordinates  will  now  carry  out  his  instructions 
intelligently,  enthusiastically,  and  helpfully. 

2D 


402  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

To  the  new  principal,  this  looks  like  a  program 
of  delay.  In  following  it  he  is  inclined  to  chafe  under 
the  restraints  it  imposes  upon  his  initiative.  In 
reality  it  is  a  program  which  gains  time  immeasurably 
for  the  ultimate  accomplishment  of  his  purposes. 
His  teachers  with  him  at  last,  he  can,  in  a  week, 
successfully  make  transformations,  install  systems, 
and  institute  experiments,  that  it  would  take 
years  of  struggle  to  accomplish  were  his  teachers 
in  a  state  of  passive  indifference  or  studied 
opposition. 

3.  The  principal's  personal  growth.  The  prin- 
cipal must  not  permit  himself  to  remain  at  any  one 
level,  however  high,  but  must  consistently  and  con- 
scientiously study  to  refresh  and  replenish  the 
sources  of  his  own  personality.  His  personal  growth 
will  take  place  along  two  main  lines,  professional 
development  and  general  culture. 

Professional  growth.  It  has  all  along  been  as- 
sumed that  the  principal  is  prepared  for  his  work, 
although  no  preparation  can  ever  be  regarded  as 
completed.  He  must  recognize  the  defects  in  his 
original  preparation  and  study  to  remedy  them. 
The  very  exercise  of  his  specific  school  duties  in  a 
spirit  of  honest  endeavor  will  lead  him  to  overcome 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    403 

many  of  those  defects,  but  he  must  not  be  content 
with  this  measure  of  correction.  Education  is 
science,  and  science  is  always  advancing.  The  prin- 
cipal must  keep  pace  with  the  progress  in  the  science 
of  education  by  systematic  reading,  study,  and 
independent  thinking.  Education  is  art,  and  art 
is  nourished  by  inspiration ;  the  principal  must  seek 
the  companionship  of  his  fellow-artists,  through 
associations  and  visitation,  and  profit  by  their 
influence  and  the  work  of  their  hands.1 

General  culture.  The  principal's  professional 
competency  must  emerge  from  a  background  of 
general  culture.  He  must  be  more  than  a  scientist 
in  education ;  he  must  relate  his  science  to  the  whole 
body  of  organized  knowledge,  becoming  a  thoughtful 
student  of  the  science  of  sciences,  which  is  philosophy. 
"  To  be  an  educator  is  not,  then,  to  be  a  man  merely 
conversant  with  the  customs  and  conventionalities 
of  the  schoolroom.  It  is  to  be  a  man  with  a  defen- 
sible social  creed.  .  .  .  Unless  we  are  courageous 
enough  to  work  back  to  this  firm  ground,  the  phil- 
osophic idea,  we  can  have  no  assured  position  on 
any  question  of  human  import,  and  surely  nothing 

1  Milwaukee  allows  a  principal  'five  days  per  year  for  the  visita- 
tion of  other  schools ;  New  York,  three  days ;  etc. 


404     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

to  say  about  education  that  will  be  at  all  worth 
saying." l 

The  principal  must  be  more  than  an  artist  in 
education ;  he  must  relate  his  art  to  its  fellow  arts 
and  crafts,  so  that  he  never  ceases  to  be  a  man  among 
men.  The  most  serious  reproach  made  of  school 
men  is  that  they  are  pedantic  and  provincial.  The 
principal  must  study  to  avoid  meriting  this  reproach. 
He  can  fulfill  his  "  general  "  obligations  to  society 
only  if  he  seeks  and  acquires  the  beneficent  attrition 
which  accompanies  association  with  men  of  other 
arts,  of  other  crafts,  of  other  professions,  with  men 
of  breadth,  of  balance,  of  energy,  of  purpose,  and  of 
accomplishment. 

4.  The  principalship.  "  In  almost  every  aspect, 
except  that  of  salary,  the  principalship  of  a  school  is 
the  most  desirable  of  all  educational  positions,  unless 
one  desires  to  pursue  in  a  professorship  some  par- 
ticular line  of  study."2  Let  us  consider  the  main 
proposition  of  this  statement,  together  with  the  two 
exceptions  noted,  beginning  with  the  exceptions. 

Salary.  The  phrase  "  except  that  of  salary " 
should  be  frankly  considered  by  every  one  who  con- 

1  C.  Hanford  Henderson,  Education  and  the  Larger  Life,  p.  6. 

2  Chancellor,  Our  Schools,  p.  176. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    405 

templates  enlisting  in  the  service  of  education. 
Financial  advancement  for  elementary  school 
teachers  lies  mainly  along  the  line  of  promotion  into 
the  principalships.  Positions  of  greater  remunera- 
tion are  relatively  few.  The  real  question  for  the 
teaching  aspirant,  therefore,  is:  Can  I  be  satisfied 
with  the  salary  of  a  principalship  as  the  maximum 
financial  reward?  The  salaries  of  principals  vary 
greatly  in  different  cities  and  towns,  according 
to  the  local  cost  of  living,  size  of  school  and  con- 
sequent responsibility  involved,  and  the  standard  of 
qualifications  for  the  position.  As  compared  with 
the  financial  returns  in  other  vocations,  preparation 
and  qualifications  considered,  the  average  income 
of  educators  is  undoubtedly  considerably  less  than 
that  of  the  other  workers,  except  perhaps  the 
ministers. 

To  say  that  the  average  income  of  educators  is 
about  two  thirds  that  of  men  of  similar  equipment  in 
other  vocations,  is  probably  a  fair  statement.  It  is, 
however,  an  inadequate  statement,  in  that  the 
ambitious  man  is  not  willing  to  start  out  in  life  call- 
ing himself  the  "  average  "  man.  The  chances,  it 
is  true,  are  all  in  favor  of  his  turning  out  to  be  an 
average  man,  but  he  would  fail  to  become  even  that 


406  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

if  he  lacked  the  determination  to  excel  the  average. 
In  most  vocations  he  sees  almost  limitless  opportu- 
nities for  financial  success.  He  may  enter  medicine 
and  aspire  to  thousand-dollar  fees;  he  may  enter 
law  and  aspire  to  a  fifty-thousand-dollar  practice; 
he  may  enter  business  and  aspire  to  untold  wealth. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  premises  to  make  his  aspira- 
tions impossible  of  fulfillment. 

If,  however,  he  enters  educational  work  the 
financial  limit  of  his  ambition  must  be  a  three-  or 
four-thousand-dollar  principalship  or  a  ten-thousand- 
dollar  superintendency  or  college  chair  or  presidency. 
He  cannot  look  forward  to  a  twenty-thousand-dollar 
position,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  none. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  the  young  man  eager  for 
the  chase  of  dollars  will  not  pursue  his  quarry  in 
the  open  fields  of  school  teaching.  If  he  lacks  the 
sporting  and  speculative  instinct  and  prefers  a 
fairly  assured  and  steady  income,  though  a  meager 
one,  to  the  chance  of  unlimited  wealth,  then  he  may 
turn  his  attention  to  teaching.  If  he  reaches  a 
principalship  in  a  city  system,  he  will  be  fairly  well 
paid,  but  not  exactly  paid.  It  may  be  of  interest  to 
inquire  why  the  principal's  pay  is  but  moderate  and 
why  it  is  inexact. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND   THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    407 

Salary  moderate;    State  school  monopoly.     The 

organizing  and  administering  ability  of  the  thor- 
oughly competent  principal  of  a  large  city  school  is 
not  rated  at  its  full  commercial  value  because  the 
principal  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  greatest  mo- 
nopolies of  the  world.  The  State  has  taken  over  the 
bulk  of  the  schooling  "  business."  If  government 
kept  its  hands  off  entirely,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
businesses,  there  would  be  the  same  opportunity  to 
"  make  money  "  as  there  is  in  those  other  vocations. 
For  instance,  were  it  not  for  this  monopoly,  an 
enterprising  principal  of  a  school  of  two  thousand 
pupils,  now  paid,  say,  three  thousand  dollars,  could 
capitalize  his  "  plant,"  give  better  satisfaction  to  his 
"  patrons  "  than  he  can  give  as  the  head  of  a  public 
institution,  return  a  liberal  interest  on  the  invest- 
ment, and  earn  for  himself  from  ten  to  twenty 
thousand  dollars. 

The  qualifications  that  make  the  principal  a  good 
school  manager  would  also,  as  a  rule,  make  him  a 
good  administrator  in  commercial  lines  where  the 
income  is  much  greater;  he  is,  however,  outside 
these  paths  of  competition.  By  the  time  he  has 
reached  an  administrative  position,  he  has  spent 
too  many  years  in  technical  training  to  be  able  to 


408     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

get  into  active  competition  with  executive  men  out- 
side his  profession.  Hence  he  is  appraised,  not  at 
what  he  could  have  earned  had  he  gone  into  the 
commercial  field  from  the  first,  but  at  whatever  sum 
he  can  wrest  from  a  not  over- willing  board  of  alder- 
men or  board  of  education  or  State  legislature. 

Salary  inexact;  size  of  school  system.  The 
salary  of  a  city  principal  is  inexact  both  because  of 
the  State  monopoly  of  education  and  because  of  the 
size  of  the  city  system.  In  a  large  organization 
salaries  are  necessarily  fixed  by  schedules,  and  flat 
rates  have  to  be  made  to  cover  a  class.  All  the 
principals  in  a  city  organization  may  be  paid  two 
thousand  dollars.  In  reality,  one  of  them  may  be 
worth  to  the  city  ten  thousand  dollars,  and  another, 
something  with  a  minus  sign  before  it.  Thus,  in 
the  evening-up  process,  the  best  principals  are 
underpaid  and  the  poor  ones  overpaid.  Were  the 
same  men  employed  in  a  competitive  system,  or  in 
a  large  corporation  within  which  competition  pre- 
vails, they  would  be  rewarded  more  nearly  in  accord 
with  their  relative  merits. 

The  average  citizen  regards  the  teacher's  annual 
salary  as  ample  because  he  is  prone  to  divide  it  by 
"  working "   hours,   which  makes  the  hourly  pay 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    409 

seem  a  respectable  amount.  His  initial  mistake  is 
in  comparing  this  amount,  not  with  the  fee  of  the 
physician  or  lawyer,  but  with  the  wage  of  the 
mechanic  or  day  laborer.  He  overlooks  the  fact 
that  good  teaching  is  not  a  matter  of  "  hours,"  and 
perhaps,  too,  the  fact  so  important  to  the  teacher, 
namely,  that  he  has  to  live,  at  some  expense,  during 
all  the  hours  of  the  year.  The  educator,  when  this 
critical  estimate  of  his  salary  is  made,  is  tempted  to 
try  to  reduce  his  service  to  an  hourly  basis  and  to 
supplement  his  income  by  employing,  for  financial 
profit,  the  extra  hours  he  is  supposed  to  squander. 
But  this  is  unsatisfactory  from  every  standpoint. 
It  results  in  a  strain  and  a  division  of  interest  which 
must  react  unfavorably  upon  his  school  work.  To 
relieve  him  from  the  temptation  is  one  of  the  duties 
of  salary-schedule  makers,  and  is,  after  all,  a  strictly 
"  business  "  proposition. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  desirability  of  a 
principalship  cannot  wholly,  if  at  all,  depend  upon 
its  financial  attractiveness.  Having  faced  this  un- 
feeling fact,  let  us  next  turn  to  the  other  "  exception." 

Principalship  and  professorship.  "  Unless  one 
desires  to  pursue  in  a  professorship  some  particular 
line  of  study."    Financially  considered,  the  college 


410  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

instructorship  and  the  principalship  are  about  at  a 
parity.  The  maximum  salary  may  be  reached  in 
fewer  years  in  the  case  of  the  principalship  and 
attainable  salaries  in  the  case  of  a  few  professorships 
exceed  those* within  reach  of  the  principal.  The 
factor  of  monetary  reward  may  practically  be  elim- 
inated in  comparing  the  two  offices.  What  remains 
is  chiefly  the  element  of  personal  preference.  The 
professor  works  more  intensively,  the  principal  works 
more  extensively;  the  one  works  more  logically, 
the  other  more  pedagogically ;  the  one  works  nearer 
the  ideal,  the  other  works  nearer  the  people ;  each 
is  peculiarly  restricted  and  circumscribed,  and  each 
is  peculiarly  free.  There  is  no  disputing  as  to  tastes ; 
and  hence  the  choice  between  the  two  careers  is  a 
matter  of  personal  coefficient. 

The  main  proposition  of  our  quotation  concerns 
the  attractiveness  of  the  principalship;  and  it  is 
"  the  most  desirable  of  all  educational  positions  " 
on  several  counts. 

Principal's  influence.     "  No  other  person  in  the 

school  system  can  do  so  much  good  at  first  hand."  ' 

The  influence  of  the  principal  is  extensive  and  yet 

direct.    Within  the  limits  of  his  school,  he  reaches 

1  Dutton,  School  Management,  p.  241. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AND  THE  PRINCIPALSHIP    411 

each  and  every  teacher  and  pupil,  and  reflects  him- 
self in  them.  His  influence  with  the  pupils  is  not  so 
direct  as  that  of  the  teacher,  nor  does  it  extend  to  so 
many  pupils  as  does  that  of  the  superintendent; 
yet  it  is  more  satisfactorily  direct  than  the  super- 
intendent's, and  more  satisfactorily  extensive  than 
the  teacher's.  His  influence  extends,  too,  through 
his  school,  into  a  wide  circle  of  community  life. 
The  opportunities  for  intelligent  service  to  pupils, 
teachers,  and  the  community  are  unlimited. 

Principal's  rewards.  The  principalship  yields, 
too,  a  more  personal  and,  if  you  will,  a  more  selfish 
satisfaction.  The  principal,  presumably,  is  a  stu- 
dent, with  the  instincts  and  habits  and  aspirations 
of  the  student ;  there  are  few  other  vocational  posi- 
tions wherein  these  instincts  can  be  given  freer  rein, 
these  habits  better  trained,  and  these  aspirations 
more  nearly  satisfied.  The  conscientious  and  ob- 
servant principal  will  greatly  appreciate  the  cultural 
value  of  his  position.  He  touches  life  at  many 
points  and  thus  enjoys  many  privileges.  He  daily 
looks  into  the  minds  of  hundreds  of  children  and 
renews  his  own  youth.  He  studies  closely  the 
personalities,  inspiring  in  both  their  diversity  and 
their  unity,  of  many  teachers.     He  conducts  him- 


412     THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  SCHOOL 

self  with  loyalty  and  courtesy,  yet  without  syco- 
phancy and  deceit,  in  his  dealings  with  officialdom. 
He  exhibits,  in  his  intercourse  with  the  visitors  to 
his  office,  the  spirit  of  unaffected  democracy  which 
keeps  acute  his  sensitiveness  to  the  social  solidarity. 
In  short,  the  view  of  the  school  principal  epitomizes 
the  whole  range  of  human  experience,  and  the 
comprehension  and  sympathy  of  his  insight  are  the 
measure  of  his  own  gain  in  true  culture. 


APPENDIX 

QUESTIONS  IN  "SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT"  GIVEN 
IN  VARIOUS   CITIES    IN   EXAMINATIONS 
FOR    LICENSE    AS    PRINCIPAL,    SU- 
PERVISING PRINCIPAL,  ETC. 


APPENDIX 

Questions  in  "School  Management"  Given  in  Vari- 
ous Cities  in  Examinations  for  License  as  Prin- 
cipal, Supervising  Principal,  etc. 

Newark  December,  191 7 

(Answer  eight) 

1.  Show  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of 
coeducation  in  the  elementary  school. 

2.  How  far  may  students  cooperate  with  the  teachers 
in  the  discipline  of  the  school  ? 

3.  Show  how  the  methods  of  instruction  and  the  dis- 
cipline may  be  utilized  in  the  formation  of  good  habits. 

4.  What  is  meant  by  "training  for  efficiency"? 
Discuss  fully  the  purpose  and  work  of  the  schools  with 
reference  to  efficiency. 

5.  Which  is  of  greater  importance  in  a  teacher,  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  matter  or  skill  in  teaching?  Give 
reasons  for  your  answer. 

6.  What  can  the  school  do  in  the  way  of  vocational 
guidance  of  pupils  who  are  not  going  to  a  higher  institu- 
tion? 

7.  Discuss  the  means  of  maintaining  the  health  of 
school  children. 

8.  Discuss  the  question  of  the  six-year  elementary 

4*5 


416  APPENDIX 

and  the  six-year  high  school  (the  six  and  six  plan),  giving 
reasons  for  or  against. 

9.  Show  how  history,  physical  training,  manual  train- 
ing, art,  and  sports  may  each  be  applied  in  teaching 
morals. 

10.  What  is  the  purpose  of  school  supervision  ?  Show 
the  relation  that  should  exist  between  supervisor  and 
teacher. 

New  Orleans  August,  191 3 

1.  What  are  the  principles  and  controlling  facts  that 
should  guide  in  the  making  of  an  elementary  course  of 
study  ? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  "the  district  the  unit,"  "the 
township  the  unit,"  "the  county  the  unit,"  in  school 
administration?  Which  of  these  plans  is  in  operation 
in  Louisiana?  Is  it  the  best  of  the  three?  Reasons 
for  your  answer. 

3.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  recitation 
exercise  ? 

4.  Name  and  give  the  meaning  of  six  of  the  more 
important  elements  which  determine  the  efficiency  of 
teachers. 

5.  What  are  the  principal  functions  of  a  school  prin- 
cipal? 

6.  What  different  types  of  schools  are  now  found 
in  the  school  system  of  our  best  cities?  What  has 
caused  this  multiplicity  of  schools  ? 


APPENDIX 


417 


7.  Discuss  the  "Grade  Meeting  of  Teachers."  In- 
clude in  the  discussion  the  following  topics :  What  it  is, 
need  for,  content  of,  how  conducted. 

8.  One  function  of  the  school  is  to  protect  and  pro- 
mote the  health  of  the  child.  Give  the  duties  of  the 
teacher  in  this  matter. 

9.  Describe  what  you  consider  to  be  the  best  method 
of  determining  the  eligibility  of  a  candidate  to  teach. 

10.   Discuss  :  "How  to  build  up  a  good  school  spirit." 


New  York 

September,  191 3 

(Time- 

— ■  Three  Hours) 

Years  in 

Age 

School 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15       16 

3--.. 

1 

4.... 

21 

4 

1 

5--.. 

3 

24 

42 

17 

3 

1 

1 

6.... 

2 

36 

45 

21 

4 

7.... 

.  . 

. . 

8 

24 

30 

6 

1 

8.... 

8 

19 

15 

3         2 

9.... 

•  • 

3 

10 

4       .. 

10. .. . 

6         1 

,  The  above  chart  represents  the  condition  existing  in 
the  sixth-year  classes  of  a  certain  system  of  schools. 
The  course  covers  nine  years,  including  a  "connecting 
grade." 


2  E 


418  APPENDIX 

(a)  What  can  you  say  of  children  represented  by  the 
figures  (i)  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  vertical  line? 
(2)  below  the  heavy  horizontal  line?  (3)  in  each  of 
the  four  quarters  ?     (6) 

(b)  What  difference  exists  between  "over-age''  and 
"  retardation  "  ?     Is  a  repeater  necessarily  a  laggard  ?  (6) 

(c)  What  practical  measures  are  indicated  for  the 
children  in  the  lower  right-hand  quarter  of  the 
chart?     (6) 

2.  Assume  throughout  a  large  school  a  very  high  per- 
centage of  non-promotion  from  Grade  iA  in  a  given 
term. 

(a)  Give  some  indication  as  to  how  to  find  the  cause 
(i.e.,  the  data  you  would  collate,  etc.).     (8) 

(b)  What,  according  to  the  best  available  data,  are  the 
probable  causes  ?     (4) 

(c)  Suggest  remedies  according  to  the  several  probable 
causes  ?     (4) 

3.  "Any  scheme  of  pupil  government  requires  the 
expense  of  a  large  amount  of  supervisory  energy  by  prin- 
cipal and  teachers ;  the  chief,  if  not  the  sole,  practical 
income  from  such  a  scheme  is  a  monitorial  supervision 
of  the  school  territory  outside  the  classroom ;  question, 
Does  the  income  exceed  the  expense?"  —  Perry. 

Discuss  this  position.     (12) 

4.  Give  some  account  of  the  present  movement  toward 
measuring  accurately  the  results  of  instruction  by  stand- 
ardized tests,  describing  and  criticizing  the  Courtis  and 
the  Binet  tests.     (15) 


APPENDIX  419 

5.  "To  develop  control  of  the  feelings  and  emotions 
is  an  important  direction  of  will  culture.' ' 

Outline  the  course  of  such  development,  indicating 
basal  principles .     (15) 

6.  Explain  briefly  the  meaning  of  the  following  terms, 
and  indicate  their  significance  for  the  school  principal 
(or  assistant  to  principal).     (20) 

(a)  "Minus  distance." 

(b)  Scoliosis. 

(c)  Physiological  age. 

(d)  Vocational  adjustment. 

(e)  Cretinism. 

New  York  September,  1913 

(Assistant  to  Principal) 

(Time  —  Two  and  one-half  hours) 

1.  "The  amount  of  moral  injury  which  results  from 
constantly  demanding  less  of  children  than  they  are 
capable  of  doing,  and  from  keeping  them  on  work  that 
has  grown  stale  to  them,  cannot  be  estimated." 

(a)  Comment  on  this  statement.     (8) 

(b)  Suggest  practical  measures  designed  to  minimize 
the  injury  here  referred  to.     (16) 

2.  "Penmanship  in  a  certain  school  was  assigned  15 
minutes  daily  throughout  the  grades.  The  exercises 
were  performed  in  a  half-hearted,  ineffective  manner.  .  .  . 
The  pupils  were  then  told  that  as  soon  as  any  one  could 
write  a  plain,  legible  hand  with  fair  rapidity,  he  would  be 


420  APPENDIX 

excused  from  further  penmanship  exercises.  ...  A 
similar  plan  was  adopted  in  spelling.  .  .  .  Whenever 
the  individual  instead  of  the  class  was  made  the  basis 
for  promotion,  the  results  were  excellent." 

What  is  the  principle  here  involved,  and  how  far  is 
it  applicable?     (10) 

3.  "The  central  point  in  moral  education  is  the  de- 
velopment of  a  sense  of  responsibility  in  pupils." 

(a)  Discuss  this  position,  mentioning  other  possible 
central  points  in  moral  education.     (12) 

(b)  Show  how  the  sense  of  responsibility  may  be 
developed  in  school  children.     (12) 

4.  Formulate  a  series  of  directions  intended  to  help 
young  teachers  who  have  trouble  in  keeping  order. 
(16) 

5.  What  "first-aid"  measures  should  be  employed  in 
a  case  of  fainting?     (6) 

6.  "  Children  used  to  write  with  their  sides  toward  the 
desk,  the  right  arm  wholly  and  the  left  partly  supported 
by  it." 

Criticize  this  position,  and  describe  the  correct  position, 
giving  reasons.     (8) 

7.  Explain  briefly  the  meaning  of  the  following  terms, 
and  indicate  their  significance  for  an  assistant  to  princi- 
pal:    (12) 

(a)  Chorea. 

(b)  "The  Group  System." 

(c)  Stigmata  of  degeneration. 

(d)  The  Binet  tests. 


APPENDIX  421 

New  York  July,  191 8 

(Assistant  to  Principal) 

(Time  —  Three  Hours) 

1.  Discuss  the  problem  of  grading  under  the  following 
heads : 

(a)  Statement  of  the  problem  and  its  conditions.     (5) 

(b)  Difficulties  of  the  problem.     (5) 

(c)  Suggestions  and  experiments  that  have  been  made 
for  its  solution.     (Describe  briefly  at  least  three  plans.) 

(9) 

2.  Write  on  topic : 

"The  model  lesson,  its  functions,  its  limitations,  and 
the  proper  method  of  conducting  it  and  making  use  of  it." 

(14) 

3.  (a)  Specify  four  ways  in  which  the  ability  to  study 
may  be  developed  in  elementary  school  pupils.     (8) 

(b)  Give  definite  practical  directions  as  to  pupils  for 
the  study  of  each  of  four  of  the  following  assignments : 
(12) 

The  chief  physical  features  of  South  America. 

The  causes  of  the  Mexican  war. 

Ten  words  in  spelling,  such  as  medicine,  separate,  con- 
trolling, vaguely,  etc. 

A  memory  gem,  e.g., 

"  Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead,"  etc. 

The  multiplication  table  of  7's. 

4.  Mention  two  specific  sources  of  information  of  five 
of  the  following,  to  which  teachers  may  be  referred  for 
intelligent  study  and  appreciation  :     (10) 


422  APPENDIX 

(a)  Phonetics  of  the  English  language. 

(b)  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

(c)  The  concept  of  numbers. 

(d)  The  kindergarten. 

(e)  The  teaching  of  defectives. 
(J)  Elementary  design  (drawing). 
(g)  Gymnastic  games. 

5.  (a)  Summarize  the  attempts  that  have  been  made 
to  formulate  standards  and  scales  for  the  measurement  of 
pupils'  progress.     (6) 

(b)  Show  the  need  and  the  value  of  such  standards 
and  scales.     (6) 

(c)  Describe  some  standard  test  or  scale  in  number 
or  composition  and  tell  how  properly  to  use  it.     (6) 

6.  Answer  A  or  B. 

A.  As  for  one  or  more  teachers'  conferences  write  a 
synopsis  in  two  or  three  pages  of  a  talk  on  the  subject 
of  punishments  and  rewards.     (15) 

B.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  teaching  in  ele- 
mentary schools  is  weak  in  "thoroughness."  Give 
your  opinion,  your  reasons.  Show  in  detail  how  a 
proper  degree  of  " thoroughness' '  can  be  secured.     (15) 

Philadelphia  February  6,  191 8 

(The  time  on  this  paper  must  not  exceed  three  hours.) 
1.  The  daily  program.     Tell  what  part   the   class 
teacher,  the  principal,  and  the  superintendent's  depart- 
ment should  have  in  it.    Defend  the  position  you  take. 


APPENDIX  423 

2.  The  present  war  condition  has  seriously  affected 
labor  supplies  and  leadership.  What  can  the  city 
school  organization  do  to  meet  these  conditions? 

3.  In  a  school  the  enrollment  is  as  follows : 

8th  Grade  —  100 ;  7th  Grade  — 120 ;  6th  Grade  —  140 ; 
5th  Grade  —  160 ;  4th  Grade  —  100 ;  3d  Grade  —  120 ; 
2d  Grade  — 160 ;  1st  Grade  —  160. 

The  teachers  are  the  following : 

Misses  A,  B,  C,  D,  —  Excellent 

Misses  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  J,  K  —  Good 

Misses  L,  M,  N,  O,  P  —  Untried  —  New 

Messrs.  Q,  R  —  Untried  —  New 

Misses  S,  T  —  Poor  instructors 

Misses  U,  V  —  Poor  disciplinarians 

Miss  W  —  Poor  health,  should  retire 

Show  by  a  diagram  how  you  would  distribute  the 
pupils  amongst  the  teachers  named,  giving  your  reasons 
for  the  assignments  you  make. 

Los  Angeles 

In  Los  Angeles  no  formal  written  examination  for  prin- 
cipalship  is  held.  The  candidate  is  judged  on  (1)  his 
record  in  teaching  or  executive  work  or  both ;  (2)  training 
and  post-graduate  study;  and  (3)  oral  examination. 
The  examination  counts  one  fifth.  The  candidate  is 
given  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  to  look  over  a  question  in 
Administration.  He  may  make  notes  if  he  desires.  Then 
he  appears  before  the  examiners  and  discusses  the  subject. 


424  APPENDIX 

The  following  are  sample  questions  used : 
i .   Suggest  one  or  two  ways  in  which  a  principal  should, 
without    question,    help    his    teachers    in    professional 
growth.     Enlarge  somewhat  upon  the  method  of  pro- 
cedure as  you  see  it. 

2.  How  far  should  principals  encourage  teachers  to 
express  themselves  frankly?  Or,  what  limits,  if  any, 
should  be  put  upon  the  freedom  of  teachers  to  say  and  do 
what  they  believe  to  be  best  in  the  classroom?  Are 
there  general  principles  that  may  be  laid  down  for 
guidance  in  such  matters  ? 

3.  If  teachers  fail  to  see  the  relation  of  the  several 
studies  of  the  curriculum  to  actual  life  and  are  doing 
their  work  in  a  formal,  dead  fashion,  suggest  some  ways 
by  which  such  relation  may  be  shown.  Illustrate  by  spe- 
cific instances. 

4.  Some  facts  in  every  lesson  are  of  more  value  than 
others.  What  suggestions  could  you  offer  teachers  which 
would  help  them  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  facts  ? 
Illustrate  by  specific  subjects. 

5.  In  the  care  of  buildings,  it  sometimes  happens  that 
conditions  are  unsatisfactory.  The  janitor  seems  willing, 
is  apparently  industrious,  though  he  complains  that  there 
is  too  much  to  do  for  the  amount  of  help  employed. 

(a)  In  a  building  of  twenty  teachers,  how  would  you 
proceed  to  learn  whether  it  was  a  fact  that  the  help  was 
insufficient,  other  than  by  expression  of  the  janitor's 
own  statement  ? 

(b)  If  you  believed  that  the  janitor  were  willing,  but 


APPENDIX  425 

not  competent  to  deal  with  the  situation,  how  would 
you  help  him  to  improve  his  methods  ? 

6.  It  is  the  business  of  a  school  Administrator  to  follow 
the  directions  of  the  Board  of  Education,  or  the  sugges- 
tions and  interpretations  thereof,  made  by  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools.  This  fact  is  never  questioned,  but 
in  practice  it  frequently  happens  that  such  directions  or 
suggestions  are  not  followed,  either  because  nothing  is 
known  of  them,  or  they  are  misunderstood,  or  they  are 
forgotten. 

(a)  In  order  to  obviate  the  possibility  of  disregarding 
such  directions,  what  provisions  would  you  make  in  the 
administration  of  your  school  ? 

(b)  If,  in  your  opinion,  some  order  or  suggestion  was 
apparently  contrary  to  the  welfare  of  the  children,  or  to 
the  principles  of  common  sense,  how  would  you  deal  with 
the  situation  ?     (Give  illustration.) 

7.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  one  of  the  important 
administrative  responsibilities  of  the  principal  is  an 
intelligent  and  economical  method  of  ordering,  distribut- 
ing, and  caring  for  supplies.  Frequently  some  method  of 
standardization  is  found  valuable  in  doing  these  things. 

(a)  What  method  of  ordering  supplies  and  determining 
their  selection  seems  to  you  best? 

(b)  Describe  the  method  of  distributing  supplies  to  a 
school  with  twenty  teachers. 

(c)  What  precaution  would  you  take  for  the  care  and 
safety  of  supplies  not  immediately  in  the  teacher's 
charge  ? 


INDEX 


Accidents  to  pupils,  187. 
Administrative  assistants,  148. 

headship,  77,  102. 
Admission  of  pupils,  230. 
Adolescence,  311. 
Adolescent  girls,  225. 
Adviser  teacher,  268. 
Allegiance,  official,  69. 
Alumni,  347. 
Assembly,  154,  342. 
Assigning  teachers,  91. 
Associations,  alumni,  347. 
parents',  44. 
Athletics,  345. 
Attendance,  351. 
Authorities,  principal  and,  6,  69. 
Authority  of  teacher,  102. 
Average,  280. 

pupils,  236. 

Binet  tests,  234. 
Biology  and  discipline,  311. 
Board,  school,  70. 
Body  strain,  216. 
Bright  pupils,  236. 
Building,  bureau,  73. 

keeping  clean,  204. 

school,  153. 
Business  executives,  72. 

Cambridge  plan,  238. 
Care  of  supplies,  166. 
Case,  discipline,  363. 
Certificate  of  merit,  126. 
Class  in  action,  136. 


Classroom,  principal  in,  395. 

regular,  155. 

standards,  269. 

work,  266. 
Clean  building,  204. 
Clerical  assistants,  147. 
Closed  book  list,  161. 
Colorless  teacher,  101. 
Commendation,  125. 
Community  council,  46. 
Complaints  against  principal,  80. 
Conduct  and  promotion,  258. 
Conference,  parent  and  principal, 

49- 
teachers,  108. 
Contagious  disease,  214. 
Cooking  room,  155. 
Cooperation,  34. 
Corporal  punishment,  372. 
Correlation,  125. 
Correspondence,  53. 
Council,  parent-teachers',  47. 
Counselor,  principal  as,  362. 
Courage,  398. 
Courtesy,  397. 
Criticism,  no. 
Culture,  principal's  general,  403. 

Daily  lesson  plan,  113. 

time  schedule,  118. 
Decoration,  174. 
Defects,  mental,  physical,  223. 
Departmental  plan,  240. 
Detail,  grasp  of,  392. 
Disciplinarian,  principal  as,  331. 
teacher  as,  320. 
427 


428 


INDEX 


Discipline  and  dismissal,  188. 

a  problem,  307. 

case,  363. 

general  principles,  309. 

preventive  measures,  349. 

specific  aids,  328. 

cautions,  322. 
methods,  319. 
Disease,  contagious,  214. 
Dismissal  during  session,  184. 

emergency,  195. 
Disputatious  parent,  49. 
Duplicate  school,  3. 
Duties,  principal,  26. 

Education  as  a  science,  18. 
Emergency,  86. 

dismissals,  195. 
Entrance  of  pupils,  193. 
Environment,  school,  16. 
Equipment,  material,  152. 
Errors,  principal's,  27. 
Esprit  de  corps,  332. 
Examinations,  275. 

and  promotion,  257. 
Exchange  of  teachers,  96. 
Executive  ability,  389. 
Executives,  business,  72. 
Exhibits,  school,  38. 
Exit  of  pupils,  193. 
Ex  parte  judgment,  79,  no. 
Expert,  principal  as,  17. 
Eyestrain,  217. 

Fatigue,  120. 

pathological,  218. 
Feeble-minded  pupils,  235. 
Feeling  training,  315. 
Fire-drill,  196. 
Flexible  time  schedule,  123. 
Forgeries,  prevention  of,  351. 
Form  letters,  56, 128, 191, 192,  331, 
339,  37i- 


Gardens,  school,  348. 
General  regulations,  107. 

relation,  principal's,  9. 
Girls,  adolescent,  225. 
Grading,  231. 
Graphs,  239,  282,  283. 
Grouping  pupils,  233. 
Group  punishment,  327. 
Growth  and  discipline,  314,  334. 

principal's  personal,  402. 
Gymnasium,  155. 
Gymnastics,  208. 

Habit  test,  284. 
Habits  and  ideals,  333. 

principal's  working,  390. 
Headship,  administrative,  77,  102. 
Health,  department  of,  214. 
Heating,  157,  206. 
Home  study,  219. 
Home  work,  credit  for,  253. 
Horizontal  supervision,  148. 

Ideal  teacher,  89. 
Ideals  and  habits,  333. 
Illness,  dismissal,  186. 
Improper  supervision,  81. 
Inattention,  270. 
Influence,  66. 

of  principal,  410. 
Inspection,  formal,  135. 
Instructing  teachers,  104. 
Intellect  training,  313. 
Intelligence,  measure  of,  233. 
Interpreting  course  of  study,  in. 

orders,  84. 
Interviews  with  parents,  59. 

Judgment  test,  291. 

Kindergarten,  155. 
Knowing  the  teachers,  92. 

Lawyer  and  his  profession,  12. 


INDEX 


429 


Leaving  building,  pupils,  182. 

room,  pupils,  212. 
Legal  authority,  principal's,  318. 

obligations,  principal's,  22. 

responsibility,         discipline, 
principal's,  361. 

status,  principal's,  25. 
Letters  of  recommendation,  338. 
Liberal  education,  11. 
Limitations,  principal's,  28. 
Loose  construction,  84. 

Material  equipment,  152. 
Measure  of  intelligence,  233. 
Median,  279. 
Meetings,  parents*,  38. 
Memory  test,  286. 
Mental  defects,  223. 
Merit,  reward  of,  126. 
Messenger  service,  190. 
Methods,  uniform,  124. 
Mistakes,  principal's,  27. 
Mode,  280. 
Model  lessons,  129. 
Monopoly,  State  school,  407. 
Moral  development,  307. 
Mothers'  Clubs,  46. 
Motion  pictures,  344. 

Neglectful  teacher,  100. 
New  school,  organizing,  399. 

teacher,  94. 
Normal  fatigue,  120. 

Obligations,  principal's  contractual, 
21. 
general,  13. 
Open  booklist,  161. 
Oral  instructions,  108. 
Order,  324. 
Orders  and  suggestions,  105. 

<        interpreting,  84. 
Organizations,  alumni,  347. 


Organizations,  parents',  44. 

pupils',  345. 

Organizing  new  school,  399. 

Painstaking  teacher,  98. 
Parents  and  principal,  32. 
associations,  44. 
meetings,  38. 
Pathological  fatigue,  120,  218. 
Patron,  33. 

Pediculosis  capitis,  215. 
Personality,  teachers',  91,  320. 
Physical  care  of  pupils,  203. 

culture,  208. 

defects,  223. 

welfare  of  pupils,  181. 
Physician  and  his  profession,  n. 
Plan  and  progress  records,  113. 
Plenum  system,  159. 
Preventive     measures,     discipline, 

349- 
Priest  and  his  profession,  12. 
Principal  and  authorities,  6,  69. 
parents,  32. 
public,  32. 
teachers,  88. 
as  counselor,  362. 
disciplinarian,  331. 
expert,  17. 
contractual     obligations, 

21. 
duties,  26. 
general  obligations,  13. 

relation,  9. 
influence,  410. 
legal  authority,  318. 
obligations,  22. 
responsibility,  361. 
status,  25. 
limitations,  28. 
mistakes,  27. 
personal  growth,  402. 
relations  to  work,  8. 
rewards,  411. 


43° 


INDEX 


Principal's  rights,  26. 
salary,  404. 
special  relation,  20. 
Principalship,  387,  404. 
Principles  of  discipline,  309. 
supervision,  76 
Prizes,  324. 
Probation,  369. 
Professional  growth,  402. 
Professions,  10. 
Professorship,  409. 
Promotion  of  pupils,  256. 
Proportion,  sense  of,  393. 
Psychology  and  discipline,  311. 
Publications,  school,  346. 
Public  control  of  schools,  8. 

principal  and,  32. 
Punctuality,  358. 
Punishment,  corporal,  372. 
Pupil  organizations,  345. 

self-government,  379. 
Pupils,  accident  to,  187. 

admission  of,  230. 

as  messengers,  100. 

attendance  of,  351. 

average,  236. 

bright,  236. 

discipline  of,  307. 

dismissal  of,  184. 

feeble-minded,  235. 

grading  of,  231. 

grouping  of,  233. 

leaving  building,  182. 
room,  212. 

moral  development,  307. 

physical  care  of,  203. 
welfare,  181. 

promotion  of,  256. 

punctuality,  358. 

rating,  250. 

responsibility  for,  181. 

scholastic  progress,  230. 

suspension,  372,  377. 

testimony  of,  55. 


Qualifications  of  principal,  387. 
Quality  of  pupils'  work,  125. 
Questions,  test,  292. 

Rating  of  pupils,  250. 

teachers,  133. 
Recesses,  209. 

Recommendation,  letters  of,  338. 
Records,  discipline,  378. 

plan  and  progress,  113. 

promotion,  263. 
Red-tape,  5. 

Reducing  grade  of  pupil,  262. 
Regulations,  general,  107. 
Report  cards,  251. 
Requisitioning  supplies,  163. 
Responsibility,  adult  and  child,  384. 
fixed,  discipline,  350. 
for  pupils,  181. 
Reward  of  merit,  126. 
Rewards,  principal,  411. 
Rights,  principal,  26. 

Sabbatical  year,  96. 

Salary,  principal,  404. 

Sarcasm,  326. 

Savings  banks,  school,  348. 

Schedule,  daily  time,  118. 

Scholastic  progress  of  pupils,  230. 

School  and  State,  1,  50. 

board,  70. 

building,  153. 

duplicate,  3. 

environment,  16. 

exhibits,  38. 

gardens,  348. 

publications,  346. 

savings  banks,  348. 

spirit,  332. 
"Schoolitis,"  99. 
Science  of  education,  18. 
Scolding,  326. 
Securing  teachers,  88. 
Selection  of  supplies,  162. 


INDEX 


431 


Self-government,  pupil,  379. 
Self-seekers,  65. 
Sociology  and  discipline,  310. 
Special  relation,  principal's,  20. 

teachers,  146. 
Specific  aids,  discipline,  328. 

cautions,  discipline,  322. 
methods,  discipline,  319. 
Spirit,  school,  332. 
Standards  and  tests,  273. 
classroom,  269. 
State  and  schools,  1,  50. 

school  monopoly,  407. 
Strain,  body,  216. 

eye,  217. 
Strict  construction,  84. 
Study  period,  272. 
Subdivision  of  work,  112. 
Substitute  teachers,  141. 
Suggestions  and  orders,  105. 
Superintendent,  74. 
Supervision,  horizontal  and  verti- 
cal, 148. 
improper,  81. 
principles  of,  76. 
Supplies,  160. 

bureau,  73. 
Suspension,  372,  377. 
System,  4,  394. 

Teacher,  administrative  headship, 
102. 

as  disciplinarian,  320. 

assigning,  91. 

ideal,  88. 

new,  94. 
Teachers,  conference,  108. 

inspection  of,  135. 


Teachers,  instructing,  104. 

principal  and,  88. 

rating,  133. 

securing,  88. 

special,  146. 

substitute,  141. 

three  kinds,  98. 

visiting  schools,  96. 
Teaching  as  a  profession,  12. 
Testimony,  pupils',  55. 
Test  questions,  293. 
Tests  and  standards,  273. 

Binet,  234. 
Textbooks,  161,  273. 
Threatening,  326. 
Time-lost  book,  214. 
Trial  promotion,  261. 
Truancy,  354. 

Uniform  methods,  124. 
Unreasonable  parent,  62. 

Vacuum  system,  159. 
Vandalism,  156. 
Ventilation,  159,  206. 
Vertical  supervision,  149. 
Visitation  by  parents,  36. 
Visiting  schools,  teachers,  96. 
Visitors  to  school,  63. 

Water  hammer,  207. 
Weariness,  120. 
Weighted  average,  280. 
Will  training,  317. 
Work,  271. 
Workshop,  155. 

Written  instructions  to   teachers, 
106. 


INDEX  OF  NAMES 


QUOTED   OR   CITED 


Adler,  Felix,  315,  320. 
Albany,  162,  354. 
Alderman,  L.  R.,  46,  96,  253. 
Atlanta,  378. 
Averill,  Lawrence  A.,  344. 

Bagley,  William  C,  269,  287,  338,  364. 

Balliet,  Dean,  314. 

Baltimore,  182,  185,  190,  210,  265,  329, 

342. 
Bancroft,  Jessie  H.,  217. 
Barnes,  Earl,  77. 
Barnum,  Charlotte  E.,  114. 
Barry,  W.  E.,  153. 
Berkey,  J.  M.,  46. 
Blaish,  Lydia,  44. 
Blake,  Katherine  D.,  336. 
Boston,  77,  345. 
Briggs,  W.  F.,  153. 
Brinton,  Willard  C,  282. 
Brooklyn,  362. 
Brooklyn  Model  School,  41. 
Bruce,  W.  G.,  153. 
Burrage-Bailey,  153,  176,  214. 
Butler,  Nicholas  M.,  19. 
Byrne,  Mary  B.  C,  114. 

Chancellor,  William  E.,  55,  71,  74,  404. 

Chapman-Rush,  277. 

Chicago,  74,  96. 

Cincinnati,  259. 

Cleveland,  74,  95,  109,  182,  210,  213, 

215,  329,  337- 
Cole,  Carlos  M.,  100,  144. 
Collins,  Frank  H.,  176. 
Cort,  Ambrose,  346. 
Crane,  Frank,  221. 
Crosby,  Katherine  K.,  100. 
Cubberley,  Ellwood  P.,  238,  276. 

2F  433 


Davidson,  Percy  E.,  387. 

Davidson,  William  M.,  237. 

Dayton,  171,  360. 

Detroit,  36,  90,  96,  198,  377. 

D'Orge,  Jeanne,  226. 

Dresslar,  Fletcher  B.,   153,  159,  208, 

219,  223,  271. 
Dutton,  Samuel  T.,  77,  410. 

Ellis-Kuehne,  153. 

Fichthandler,  Alexander,  141. 
Freeport,  36. 

Gidinghagen,  Walter,  294. 
Gilbreth,  F.  D.  and  L.  M.,  218. 
Goldrich,  Leon  W.,  248. 
Goldwasser,  L.  E.,  164. 
Grand  Rapids,  235. 

Hall-Quest,  A.  L.,  220. 
Harris,  John  F.,  328. 
Heck,  William  H.,  219. 
Hein,  Henry,  254. 
Henderson,  C.  Hanford,  404. 
Holmes,  Oliver  W.,  315. 
Holtz,  Frederick  L.,  349. 
Horn,  P.  W.,  276. 

Indianapolis,  61,  78,  201,  327,  354,  362. 

Jersey  City,  166,  208. 
Jones,  Mabel  F.,  297. 

Kansas  City,  51,  348,  353. 
Kilpatrick,  Van  Evrie,  348. 
King,  Henry,  40. 
King,  Irving,  46,  333,  381. 
King,  Willford  I.,  279. 
Kipling,  92. 


434 


INDEX 


Kottman,  William  A.,  192. 

Lee,  Gerald  S.,  10. 

Lister-Myers,  278. 

Los  Angeles,  399,  423. 

Louisville,  36,  60,  63, 185, 327,  358,  381. 

Luqueer,  Frederic  L.,  323. 

Mandell,  Edward,  175. 
Maxwell,  William  H.,  380. 
McCarty,  William  P.,  183. 
McCloskey,  Margaret,  269. 
McMurry,  Charles  A.,  320,  322. 
McMurry,  Frank  M.,  94. 
Memmott,  Frederick  W.,  126. 
Mills,  W.  T.,  153. 
Milwaukee,  403. 
Minneapolis,  47,  49,  64,  65,  173,  206, 

346,  348- 
Mississippi,  399. 
Monroe-DeVoss-Kelly,  277,  279,  285, 

302. 
Moore,  J.  A.,  153. 

Newark,  415. 

New  Haven,  22,  78, 108,  173,  185,  187, 

344- 
New  Orleans,  37,  50,  108,  138,  186, 

187,  240,  416. 
New  York,  28,  74,  78,  96,  97,  134,  138, 

210,  221,  224,  235,  278,  329,  343,  357, 

381,  403,  417. 

Oakland,  97,  235. 
Omaha,  54,  203. 

Parker,  F.  W.,  79. 

Paterson,  171,  329. 

Paton,  J.  L.,  368. 

Perkins,  Frank  K.,  52. 

Philadelphia,  74,  116,  215,  235,  255, 

372,  422. 
Philips,  H.  S.,  41. 
Pittsburgh,  46,  237. 
Portland,  Ore.,  46,  65,  92,  96,  118,  141, 

276,  351,  353- 
Price,  Gertrude  A.,  293. 
Providence,  235,  373. 
Purinton,  Estelle,  44. 


Rabenort,  William,  58,  114. 
Rainey,  William  M.,  261. 
Rice,  Anna  L.,  40. 
Richmond,  89,  136,  174. 
Robinson,  L.  A.,  219. 
Rochester,  96,  97,  198,  329,  353. 
Roncovieri,  Supt.,  81. 
Rowe,  Stuart  H.,  153. 
Rugg,  Harold  O.,  279. 

Sacramento,  220. 

St.  Louis,  74,  85,  166,  173,  208,  370. 

San  Francisco,  59,  74,  80,  92,  no,  198, 

210,  270,  319,  329,  354. 
Savage,  R.  R.,  39. 
Schurman,  J.  G.,  78. 
Seattle,  53,  64,  65,  74,  83, 173,  327,  329, 

374- 
Shallow,  Edward  B.,  348. 
Shaw,  Edward  R.,  153,  163,  214. 
Shawen,  Ernest,  40. 
Smith,  Walter  B.,  223. 
Smith,  Walter  R.,  325. 
Spaulding,  Frank  B.,  238,  251. 
Spokane,  188,  374. 
Springfield,  Mass.,  48. 
Starch,  Daniel,  278. 
Stevens,  Frank  B.,  239. 
Strahan,  Margaret,  296. 
Strayer-Thorndike,  236. 
Syracuse,  153,  157,  220,  259,  324,  351. 

Terman,  Lewis  M.,  223,  234,  235. 
Thorndike,  Edward  L.,  273,  280. 

Underwood,  F.  M.,  39. 

Van  Dyke,  Dr.,  356. 
Van  Wagenen,  Kate,  106. 
Virginia,  22. 

Walker,  Francis,  214. 
Walsemann,  Mary,  179. 
Wheelwright,  E.  M.,  153. 
Woods,  Elizabeth  L.,  237. 
Worcester,  121,  205,  252,  381. 

Yerkes-Bridges-Hardwick,  234. 
Yerkes,  Helen  K.,  43. 


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to  $1.00  per  volume  after  the  sixth  day.  Books  not  in 
demand  may  be  renewed  if  application  is  made  before 
expiration  of  loan  period. 


AUG 


APR    4   1932 


50m-7,'27 


YB  44597 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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